Testicular Cancer: A Case Study

Prostate cancer being a huge cause of mortality and medical expense in men age forty and above has only recently become a topic of general conversation to men in America (Plowden, 2009). African-American men are affected by prostate cancer at a disproportional level than all other men. They are diagnosed up to 65% more frequently and the mortality rate is twice that of Caucasian counterparts (Emerson, 2009). The African-American male is also less likely to take advantage of free prostate cancer screening (Oliver, 2007).

In the United States, it’s estimated that roughly 1 in 5 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer. According to the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program (SEER) of the National Cancer Institute, “the number of new cases of prostate cancer was 129.4 per 100,000 men per year. The number of deaths was 20.7 per 100,000 men per year. These rates are age-adjusted and based on 2009-2013 cases and

Limitations in this QI project included a small sample size, small number of participants, and conducting the study in a single medical clinic. Other limitations included if the females aged 18-24 were sexually active or if they declined the CT screening. The QI principal investigator had no access to review medical charts to determine if the sample size were sexually active or not, and to determine, if females 18-24 declined or refused CT screening. The providers’ barriers included limited-time to screen for CT, or patients declined to being screened, or it was the medical assistant’s job responsibility to screen on the providers’ behalf. Conclusions

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC's) National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program (NBCCEDP) provides access to breast and cervical cancer screening to underserved women in all 50 states. NBCCEDP programs use population-based approaches such as public education, patient navigation, and outreach, care coordination to increase screening and reach underserved and uninsured populations. This program provides cervical screening for 21 to 64 year and breast screening for 40 to 64 years. Since this program initiated in 1991 almost 3.7 million women has been screened and 44,885 cases of breast cancer, 2,554 cervical cancers and123, 563 cervical precursor lesions have been detected (Benard et.al , 2011). NBCCEDP use Conceptual Framework supports a collection of strategies to reach uninsured women, including program controlling, screening and diagnostic services. Team members of the NBCCEDP work collaboratively to provide breast and cervical cancer screening, diagnostic evaluation, treatment and referrals. “The program's continued success depends in large part on the complementary efforts of a variety of national partner organizations, as well as on state and community partners” (CDC, 2012). The key success for these two cancer screening programmes

As stated previously in 2014 the USA had approximately 20.3 million people who were diagnosed with cancer. When exploring the 2013 incident rates of men with cancer black men had an incident rate of 518. Compared to white men of 473.9, next came Hispanic and Asian; black males had the highest death rate among all races (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016b). In regards to women, white women had an incident rate of 417.4, followed by blacks, Hispanics, and Asians, but the highest death rate is among black women (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016b). According to the statistics the needs for increased screening and care is needed in the African American and Hispanic community.

The possibility of sexually transmitted diseases and infections poses a huge risk to all those who are sexually active. Without proper diagnosis and treatment, STDs and STIs such as Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, HIV/Aids, and HPV may leave permanent damage to one’s body and increase the likeliness of cervical cancer, infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and more. Planned Parenthood offers extensive testing for patients upon every visit to decrease the spread and damage of any and all diseases. According to Sonfield’s research, “Nearly half of female family planning clients receive chlamydia and gonorrhea tests, and 19% receive an HIV test… Without access to these services, in 2010, an estimated 3.6 million women and men would have forgone chlamydia or gonorrhea testing, which would have resulted in tens of thousands of undetected and untreated STIs. By reducing transmission to partners, these testing services helped prevent an estimated 99,000 chlamydia infections, 16,000 gonorrhea infections and 410 HIV infections that year” (Sonfield). The great amount of transferable diseases requires the counteractive services of Planned Parenthood to provide treatment and prevent the further spread of disease. Patients are offered and encouraged to receive testing to maintain sexual health. In the event of an issue, full treatment options are presented at low or no cost and

Describe the immune response and the cells and structures that participate in it. Pay special attention to the different types of white blood cells as well as the structures involved. (At least 500 words.)

According to sources, the US Preventive Services Task Force advises against pelvic exam procedure--calculating to 63 million (REFERENCE) performed half a decade ago--for healthy women because specific illnesses (i.e., ovarian cancer) have not decreased; however, doctors argue with the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists retreat to advocate further usage of the pelvic exam treatment due to the lack of evidence showing the benefits towards 'asymptomatic women" (Amir Qaseem, VP of AMERICAN COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS).

Cancer screening plays a vital role in detecting the disease early and preventing it from spreading. The purpose of screening is looking for cancer before a person has any symptoms. It is very important to enlighten populations at risk the significance of early cancer screening. People should have clear, understandable and correct knowledge of these tests which will help them to make informed decisions about their health care. The purpose of this paper is to observe the Every Woman Matters Program, reasons of its ineffectiveness in meeting its goals, review two evidence based cancer screening advocacy programs and the strategies to create more effective screening program as a nurse leader.

Anogenital cancer (rectal, anal, anal canal, anorectum, penis and other genital) rates are on the rise with 27,660 estimated new male cases and 710 estimated male deaths in the United States last year alone.1 Currently, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) recommends vaccination in the men who have sex with men (MSM) population up to age 26 if they had not received it when they were younger.2 There are no current recommendations for this population who are greater than age 26 who have not previously received the vaccine. As age of an individual and number of lifetime sexual partners increases, the risk of developing anal cancer also increases. Men who have had >15 sexual partners during their lifetime show an increase in risk of developing anal cancer (OR=5.3; 95% CI, 2.4-12.0). Additionally, men who practice receptive anal intercourse is independently related to an increased risk of developing anal cancer (OR=6.8; 95% CI 1.4-33.8).3

Prostatic carcinoma is the most commonest threat in men and the moment driving cause of cancer passing in Western populaces.

PSA has become the most important biomarker for detection and follow up of prostate cancer. PSA levels of greater than 4.0ng/ml have been considered to have predictive value for prostate cancer. This screening test is well tolerated, quick, cheap, and standardized. Physicians are also familiar with the test results and can easily translate (Roobol et al., 2011). According to Wachtel, Nelius, Haynes, Dahlbeck, and de Riese (2013), the United States Preventative Health Task Force recently recommended PSA screening be abandoned in part by examining the results of two randomized trials, concluding that the results did not support the notion that the benefit of PSA screening outweighed the risks and costs even though there has been a steady decline in mortality since the early 1990s.

Many studies have been conducted to evaluate prostate screening. The Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial, which NCI conducted to establish whether certain screening tests can help reduce the numbers of deaths from several common cancers. In the prostate section of the trial, the PSA test and digital rectal exam(DRE) were evaluated for their ability to decrease a man’s chances of dying from prostate cancer.

Beginning since 2012, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) has reduced the frequency for Cervical Cancer Screenings, and begins to continue with reducing recommendation as described in Kaiser’s article “Prevention Experts Propose Easing Advice on Number of Cervical Cancer Screenings.” This reduction came in 2013, 11,955 women were diagnosed with Cervical Cancer (Fowler, Saraiya, Moskosky, Miller, Gable & Mautone-Smith, 2017). The determination of which testing, Pap Smear or HPV Co- Testing, is based on the patient education, and future desire of pregnancy. Predominantly most cervical cancers are due to the lack of screening (Andrews, 2017). A plan based on education and notification would be more beneficial than a continued over

Purpose: We recently demonstrated that pathologic analysis of benign scrotal surgical specimens may be unnecessarily increasing costs of patient care. Adult circumcision specimens may also routinely be sent for pathological analysis even when penile cancer is not suspected, increasing costs with little benefit. To assess the utility of foreskin pathology analysis, we evaluated the outcomes and the costs of this practice in patients where penile cancer was not suspected.