Th2 Response Paper

Over time, scientists have learned about the importance of hygiene. During the Middle Ages, people did not bathe regularly and they did not use soap. As the years progressed, scientists have found the benefits of sanitation and how it can prevent diseases. Different soaps, shampoos, and even toothpastes were invented to combat pandemics. The number of pandemics mankind has prevented by just washing their hands is unimaginable. The future will probably bring the equivalent of another “soap breakthrough:” a simple technique that becomes widespread and limits the chances of a pandemic. In the past century alone, countless new medications have stopped infectious diseases before they had time to become pandemics. A simple example of this is when a person has strep throat, a contagious disease, people take antibiotics for a week and are cured. There are thousands of other examples of different diseases for which scientists have found cures. If scientists can cure a thousand different would-be pandemics, what is stopping them from curing them in the future? The answer is nothing; people are simply waiting for the right geniuses to make the right discoveries that will help bring an end to various dangerous pandemics. However, with every new antibiotic

It is hard for us to imagine living a country before modern medicine. Just over one hundred years ago, nearly nine out of every 1,000 women who gave birth died from complications, roughly 40 percent from bacterial infections (CDC, 1999). In some U.S. cities and townships as many as 30 percent of infants passed away before they could celebrate their first birthday (Ibid). About one in every nine individuals who contracted a serious skin infection ended up being killed by it, even from something as trivial as an abrasion or a bug bite (Ibid). Pneumonia killed 30 percent of those who came down with it; and meningitis had a kill rate of 70 percent (Editorial Board, 2014). Surgical procedures were shoddy and often resulted in mortality due to bacterial infection (Ibid). However, the landscape was dramatically changed by the development and implementation of a few major medical breakthroughs: improvements in public health, vaccines, and antibiotics (PCAST, 2014). Over the past hundred years, deaths from infectious diseases declined incredibly and contributed to a substantial increase in life expectancy. Antibiotics, especially, have preserved millions upon millions of lives (Ibid).

This is because it correlates with the third epidemiological transition that is described by Harper and Armelagos. The third epidemiological transition describes the re-emergence of infectious diseases. It states that there is a rise in antibiotic resistant pathogens. In addition, the New York Times article and Harper and Armelagos state that the resistant pathogens are spreading across the world at a fast pace, because globalization is allowing antibiotic resistant pathogens to spread their resistance to other pathogens. Nonetheless, there are some pathogens that are resistant to all the antibiotics that are known to exist

Immunity depends on the recognition of pathogen components by innate receptors expressed on immune and non-immune cells against microbial pathogens. Innate receptors are conserved germ-line-encoded proteins and include TLRs (toll-like receptors), RLRs [RIG-1 like receptors (retinoic acid-inducible gene-1)] and NLRs (nod-like receptors). Receptors recognize pathogens or pathogen-derived products in different cellular compartments, for instance plasma membrane, endosomes or the cytoplasm, and induce the expression of cytokines, chemokines and co-stimulatory molecules to eliminate molecules to eliminate pathogens and instruct pathogen specific adaptive immune response.

Many today wouldn’t think about not maintaining cleanliness, whereas in the 18th century maintaining one's hygiene or the fear of bacteria killing people didn’t phase patients, doctors, or even civilians. During the time, many people believed that if they were ill, it was because God was punishing them for their sins. So instead of trying to figure a way of a cure, many people continuously prayed to God or practiced what their religion did for the sick. But several people didn’t understand or know the miracle of medicine or even a way to prevent bacteria growth in the body. Back then is was a nightmare to have surgery if you were a patient, because they lacked of surgical techniques. But as scientist furthered their research on bacterial growth, realizing its cause in sickness has helped in the development of antiseptics.

While antibiotics and vaccines have numerous well-known benefits associated with prevention and recovery, what unfamiliar beneficial effects do they contribute to society? When it comes to the topic of antibiotic and vaccine use, most people will readily agree that medical treatment will greatly reduce the chance of getting ill and will improve recovery time. This agreement usually ends, however, on the question: Are antibiotics and vaccines necessary to maintain a healthy society? Whereas some are convinced that the use of antibiotics and vaccines pose a threat to society by inducing antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria and encouraging virus mutation, others maintain that resistance and mutation will occur naturally, and without advances in treatment these natural changes of pathogens are the cause of devastating epidemics.

From the ancient times up to the present day, news about massive deaths caused by diseases and viruses still horrified nations from different part of the world. Even medical authorities are being shocked on how bacteria and other disease-carrying bodies react to newly formulated medicines and treatment. It is really alarming to know that these bacteria and viruses are capable on adapting to their environments through the process of evolution.

Though prescription drugs in the water have not been proven to affect humans yet, scientists working at Yale are concerned that this could produce hard to control antibiotic resistant pathogens. This could also result in new pathological species being produced. Scientists are not surprised to find that more resistant bacteria are found in places where antibiotics and prescription medicines are more heavily used. A study at Yale has confirmed that antibiotic resistant bacteria are more common by 70% in communities that use a lot of

Infections don’t always occur to some humans who are exposed to pathogens because of their overall health status and immune system. Although, there are numerous infections in the world that affect humans in harmful ways. Scientists for centuries have developed many drugs and antibiotics to cure infections like fungal, bacterial, common colds, flu, etc.

Today, whenever a person gets sick, he/she can conveniently go to the doctor's office to get a diagnosis and are typically prescribed a variety of antibiotics or treatments that help you recover quicker. But with the emergence of various diseases such as HIV, cancer, tuberculosis, etc. treatments and modern medicine can do little to combat these viruses. Germs have higher chances to develop a resistance to drugs if they aren't used properly. Specifically germs can adapt and evolve to their environment faster than almost any other organism. Experts estimate that “700,000 people die around the world each year from drug-resistant germs, and they expect the number to grow sharply”(Withnall). In 2016 the United Nations convened for a special session for the fourth time in their history to discuss a health issue that's “the greatest future threat to our civilization” (Withnall).

Co-existence of the gut microbiota and cells within mammalian hosts can then be understood on a molecular level, highlighting the significance of microbe-host interactions in studying health and disease (Hooper 2012). The main function programmed into host cells is to prevent entry from foreign invaders through the recognition of self from non-self. All bacterial cells are comprised of elements that can be detected by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on host cells. These ligands are pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) such as nucleic acids, flagellin and lipopolysaccharides which are attached to bacterial membrane and can trigger inflammatory immune responses. Due to the relative abundance of these commensals, mechanisms of adaptation have been employed in order to induce a tolerance in host cells (Palm 2015). An additional component of the ability to tolerate microbes is mediated by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) of the immune system that are crucial to induce a response upon exposure to non-self. Macrophages are APCs that have a method of tolerance by suppressing the secretion of cytokines upon detecting commensals during a state of homeostasis. This mechanism will prevent the cascade of an inflammatory response to gut microbiota as they are identified as commensals rather

Flohr and Yeo determined that the hygiene hypothesis could not be disproved and exposure to helminthic infection did protect against immune dysregulation [3]. They performed a systematic study of those with atopic dermatitis and found that there was an inverse relationship between helminthic exposure and atopic dermatitis [3]. Fumagalli et al. approached the “hygiene hypothesis” from a genetic angle. They hypothesized that pathogen richness, particularly helminthes abundance, in a given area would lead to selection of genes related to helminthic defense [4]. Their analysis indicated that interleukin genes, which are related to inflammatory response, have undergone balancing selection due to helminthic infection. Balancing selection has resulted in polymorphism and the subsequent production of variant interleukin genes that are known to predispose an individual to inflammatory bowel disease [4]. These variant genes cause a more robust immune response than is required in a healthy individual, but that would be beneficial in chronic helminthic infection [4]. These findings support the “hygiene hypothesis” in that they demonstrate an immune imbalance due to decrease in helminthic infection

I first came across the term “hygiene hypothesis” in a novel titled Parasite, by Mira Grant. It described a future where autoimmune disorders have become endemic, and people are dependent upon helminthic therapy to prime their immune system. That topic sparked an interest in me, and upon searching, I found that autoimmune disorders are much more prevalent in industrialized nations than third world nations, where sanitation is not prioritised as much as developed nations. It seems that our endeavour to wipe out microorganisms is turning upon us and making our immune system attack our own body.

It presents an ethical quandary to society. In theory, not only are bacteria evolving but so are humans from generation to generation (Weaver, 2008). Due to this idea, they engage in the continual use of antibiotics inhibiting their innate and acquired immune response. What is more is that hospitals and patients depend on antibiotics and its advancements. According to Mahyar Etminan, these drugs were overused “by lazy doctors who are trying to kill a fly with an automatic weapon”, prescribing stronger antibiotics with stronger antibiotics (Brody, 2012). For pediatric care, a study in particular showed that doctors prescribe antibiotics 62% of the time if they perceive parents expect them and 7% of the time if they feel parents do not expect them (Mangione-Smith, McGlynn, Elliott, & et al., 1999). As well as for most cases of ear infections caused by bacteria, antibiotics are effective but only 1 out of 5 children with ear infections needs antibiotics to clear an ear infection (Bradley-Stevenson, & et al., 2007). Furthermore, in third world countries, they can have antibiotics without a prescription needed. For instance, here in the Philippines, purchases of antibiotics were made without prescription in 66.3% of 1608 transactions (Lansang, Lucas-Aquino, Tupasi, Mina, Salazar, Juban, Limjoco, Nisperos, & Kunin, 1990). Although antibiotics present a particular frontier to health or science, it should also be considered that they

As humans have evolved over time, so too have bacteria, which has led bacteria over the years to develop some resistances to our current arsenal of antibiotics. Doctors have begun to see bacteria that are resistant to our entire realm of antibiotics, which would effectively render them untreatable (Baggaley, 2017). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention announced in January that one such bacteria contributed to the of death of a woman last September from Washoe County, Nevada (Chen et al., 2017). Keeve Nachman, an assistant professor at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health in Baltimore says they are coming across ever-increasing numbers drug-resistant bugs (Baggaley, 2017). This is an alarming trend to say the least, many doctors around the world are calling for direct action on it. Drs. Simon Prasad and Phillippa Smith from the Office of the Chief Scientist in Australia issued a dire warning that we’re on the verge of entering the “post-antibiotics era” (Prasad & Smith, 2014). They fear even the most common infection