The And Randomized Controlled Trials

An annotated bibliography is a catalogue of citations to books, documents and articles with the purpose of the annotation being to inform the reader of the precision, relevance and quality of the sources cited (Davis, 2009). Evidence based practice enables health care professionals to effectively use current verification during the decision-making procedure (Sacket et al 2000). Healthcare professionals use a hierarchy of evidence as a guide to define the reliability and importance of the evidence based research; with the evidence that is founded further upon

The Indicated Review had 80 studies involving 11,337 students (Weissberg, Taylor, Schellinger, Payton, Pachan, Dymicki and Durlak,

Finally, one article was found by conducting a search of the identified article’s reference section. This article was searched by title on the Cochrane database and was found useful to the clinical

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| The discussion refers often to the topic and with adequate evidence from the literature. There is appraisal of the literature(19-21)

Please list the references and clinical resources that you use in your review of this document. These references should support any clinical or extensive revisions or additions that you make. Aside from known common best practices, references are required. We reserve the right to request additional references. References and resources used:

The practice of patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) has been around for approximately four decades now. During this time there have been improvements to the technology and the understanding of how to use this form of patient pain control; however, there continues to be concern related to the safety and efficacy of PCA. As this analysis proceeds it will briefly explain what PCA is and how it is used, then delve into the benefits and the safety issues surrounding PCA use as it pertains to the patient and the nurse. Some of the benefits of PCA include improved pain management, improved use of nursing resources, increased patient satisfaction, and reduced pulmonary issues (Hicks, Sikirica, Nelson, Schein & Cousins, 2008). Some of the safety

It synthesizes the results of various primary studies by using strategies that reduces biases and random errors. These reviews follow a strict scientific design and provide consistent estimates about the effects of interventions, therefore, conclusions are defensible. Systematic reviews shows where knowledge is lacking and can be used to guide future research. These reviews are usually carried out in the areas of clinical tests such as diagnostic, screening and prognostic; public health interventions; economic evaluations; adverse effects and how and why interventions work. Cochrane reviews are systematic reviews undertaken by Cochrane Collaboration members, aims to help people to make well-informed decisions about healthcare by preparing, maintaining, and promoting the accessibility of systematic reviews of the effects of healthcare

For the literature review an electronic search was undertaken of articles published in English using the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PubMed and Cochrane databases from 2009 to 2013 were searched for medical subject heading terms, both individual terms and combination of the following

I also performed a search on the Cochrane library. The Cochrane library is a collection of six databases that contain systematic reviews for health and social care (Aveyard 2014). It is argued that the literature available at the Cochrane library is the ‘gold standard’ of research. Unfortunately, the search within the Cochrane library only produced one piece of research which had to be excluded as it as related to paediatrics and did not fit the criteria for the search and could not be included for this dissertation.

According to the systematic review covered by Apfel, Turan, Souza, Pergolizzi & Hornuss, 2013 there is a significant reduction in postoperative nausea and vomiting and opioid use when using intravenous acetaminophen. The reviewers used Medline and Cochrane databases to conduct their search along with a hand search of abstracts to identify randomized-controlled trials using intravenous acetaminophen. The review was to determine if the acetaminophen was going to have a significant decline in nausea and vomiting following surgical procedures as

Postoperative surgical pain can often be moderate to severe leaving the client in a state of discomfort that requires the administration of opioid analgesic medications. Morphine intravenous (IV) patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) is commonly provided through a pump to treat postoperative surgical pain, but with advances in the medication administration field, a fentanyl iontophoretic transdermal system (ITS) has become another popular method (Lindley, Pestano, & Gargiulo, 2009). Morphine and fentanyl are similar medications in that they are both opioid analgesics and are both equally effective to reduce pain, but they offer differences through their administration techniques, comfort for the client, and providing care in a timely manner by the nurse. The nurse must take into consideration these differences to choose the proper medication for their specific client.

o Review of related literature: In what ways does the literature review support the need for this study?

The management of postoperative pain has received much interest nowadays. The intensity of postoperative pain depends on many factors such as type and duration of the surgery, type of anesthesia and analgesia used, and the patient’s mental and emotional status (11).

Non-pharmacological adjuvants are non-medicinal elements which could include music, relaxation, breathing techniques, imagery, distraction, and massage (Sylvia, Carol, LeeAnn & MSN, 2011). Assessments of pain and side effects refer to the examination of a patient at regular intervals of time. Intervention and reassessment is based on changes related to previous pain and side effect assessments. Patient education is training individuals on how to manage or prevent pain with medication and activity. Goal setting is designed to aid in maintaining and reducing pain by allowing the patient, nurse, and doctor to work together in order to form a plan of pain management. All concepts work together to promote a balance between analgesia and side effects.