The Anxiety Of Lithium Chloride Causes Mild Illness

PURPOSE The main goal of experiment three was to test a rat’s ability to be conditioned to perform a behavior, and then relearn the same behavior after an extinction period. After ensuring that the rat was conditioned on a continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF), the next goal in the experiment was to extinct the previously learned behavior of lever pressing and receiving a food pellet. Once the behavior was extinct, the rat was reconditioned to lever press on a conditioned reinforcement schedule. The goal of the experiment was to demonstrate that a behavior could be learned, extinct, and then relearned.

The Open University (2014) ‘Evaluative conditioning and food preferences’ [online], DE100 investigating psychology 1. https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=442467&section=6.3. Accessed (27/04/15).

“Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and its chemically related compound, 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), provide extremely bitter taste to some subjects (tasters) but are tasteless or only slightly bitter to others (nontasters)” (Hong, et al.,711-15). There have been many experiments done to examine the relationship between PTC tasting and food preferences. “Although PTC itself has not been found in nature, the ability to taste PTC is correlated strongly with the ability to taste other naturally occurring bitter substances, many of which are toxic. Furthermore, variation in PTC taste sensitivity has been correlated with dietary preferences that may have significant health effects” (Wooding, et al., 637-646). Therefore, differences in PTC tasting can correspond with sensitivity to diseases that are related to diets in the human population. “The ability to taste the bitter compounds PTC and PROP was found to be a protective factor against cigarette smoking. On the other hand, PTC tasters may perceive vegetables such as cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts as unpleasantly bitter” (Floriano, et al., 931-941). Based on the information above one can conclude that PTC tasters are less susceptible to smoking cigarettes but they are also less likely to consume food that contain beneficial nutrients. A crucial point to understand is that although cruciferous

A virtual rat, Sniffy, was used for this experiment. Sniffy the Virtual Rat, Pro Version 3.0 allows for the demonstration of Pavlovian and operant conditioning of a virtual rat. Tom Alloway, Greg Wilson, and Jeff Graham, authors of Sniffy the Virtual Rat designed this program to be an affordable alternative for students to gain “access to the main phenomena of classical and operant conditioning that courses on the psychology of learning typically discuss” (Jakubow, 2007). The program allows for simulations for Pavlovian conditioning such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus-intensity effects, compound conditioning, blocking, overshadowing, overexpectation, inhibition, sensory preconditioning,

“Taste, like smell, is a doorman for the digestive tract, a chemical scan for the possible dangerous (bitter, sour) elements and desireable (salty, sweet) nutrients.” (46)

The objective is to determine whether or not there is an effect of disinhibited eating when participants with high restraint are given a liquid preload. The liquid preload soda is hypothesized to cause high restraint eaters to eat the most. Apple juice will have an intermediate effect and water will have the least effect of restrained eaters. Participants that will not receive a preload will not exhibit disinhibited eating.

The use of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) taste strips helps determines whether people have a sense of taste that is, ‘strongly bitter’, ‘bitter’, or ‘no taste.’ Through the studies of different reactions to taste, the hope is to get an overall assumption of taste perception for the population. Taste perception is based on the different amounts of fungiform papillae on the tongue and it will trigger differences in perceived taste intensities of other taste stimuli (Pelletier & Steele, 2014, Reedy, Haines, & Campbell, 2005, Bartoshuk,1993). The number of taste pores correlates with the strongest perception of sweet taste, but not as much correlation with fungiform papillae density relation to bitter substances (Wolf, Illini, Uy, Renner, & Mueller,

Phenylthiocarbamide, known as PTC, is a compound that is sensitive to the bitter taste of some individuals while tasteless or slightly less bitter to others. The ability to taste PTC is inherited by the presence of a T2R taste receptors found on the tongue. Studies on this began during the 1930s, where scientists noticed that crystals of PTC had different affects on the taste buds of individuals. To test this observation out they used PTC-saturated paper, where the experimentee would place the paper in their mouth for a few seconds and the results were recorded. Those who were able to taste the bitterness of the PTC-saturated paper are known as “tasters”, while those who were not able to taste anything are called “non-tasters”. Being able to

In Pavlov’s classical experiment, the dogs were experimentally conditioned to associate a ringing bell with food by the presentation of these events at the same time. As a result, after this response had been experimentally conditioned, a ringing bell, alone, was sufficient to induce the dogs to salivate in anticipation of food.

Foods are absolute necessity in a human’s life; however, we also consume food to fit in a culture or simply as a pleasure. Many people believe that food has the only ability to change physical appearance of a person, but what many fail to realize that food has the ability to manipulate our powerful brain as

The authors in this study examines the importance and the evolution of the bitter taste receptors in humans and apes. The T2Rs receptors are primarily responsible for bitter taste. Bitter taste is important because it helps organisms to distinguish between different types of food and avoid the ingestion of poisonous compounds since most of these compounds are bitter. Consequently, the researchers hypothesized that the receptors genes have evolved under species specific evolutionary limitations. The T2Rs gene reperoires were sequenced from human, chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes troglodytes), bonobo ( Pan paniscus), gorillas…..

Garcia et al research (Mazure, 2004) proves otherwise, as he shows rats initially made to drink the saccharine-flavoured water, injected with the poison after a delayed interval between the drinking and the drug, developed aversions to the saccharine flavoured water even after 24hours of delay. This illustrates, even when the CS-US is delayed, learning takes place and the ability to do so is adaptive in all species supporting that a general process learning theory is effective. The rat’s biological make-up has an innate tendency to associate illness with the taste of food previously eaten after one trial. Pairing a light with a paw shock, on the other hand, takes several trials to acquire and has low tendency to associate illness with visual or auditory stimuli. Whereas the rats are more likely to associate a painful event like shock with external auditory and visual than with taste stimuli. This revolves around preparedness and we can say that the laws of learning may vary with preparedness of the organism for the association and for those different physiological and cognitive mechanisms (McGowan, & Green, 1971). Louge (1981) also supports taste aversion as a classical conditioning biological constraint learned behaviour on humans as he carried out a questionnaire which resulted in students declaring they were aversive to certain foods. Characteristics, such as smell, sight and texture were also discovered.

Food palatability refers to an organism 's subjective experience of food and can be either positive or aversive. As a result, this is generally associated with reward "liking". The reward value attributed to obtaining different foods plays a role in determining an organism 's actions, and is thus referred to as reward "wanting". These "liking" and "wanting" pathways were previously thought to be processed by similar, linked, neural structures including the nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum and were thought to go hand in hand (Smith & Berridge, 2007). However, many researchers now suggests otherwise. Studies still indicate that the nucleus accumbens shell

Traditionally, experimental analysis of Homo sapiens taste thresholds has similarly focused on these two classes of biomolecules, with similar sweetness thresholds as those exhibited by members of the taxa Insecta being established in H. sapiens with respect to simple carbohydrates. For example, while Scheiner et. al. in (2003) (as quoted in Scheiner et al. 2004), demonstrated that a sucrose concentration above 3% was sufficient to induce a positive sweetness detection rate of close to 60% in a population of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, Richard Bowen (2016) has indicated the H. sapiens population response threshold resides around sucrose concentrations of 3.4%.

conditioned response. An example of this would be getting hungry when you smell the scent of