The Central Dogma Of Molecular Biology

“Agriculture is the most healthful, most useful, and most noble employment of man,” George Washington. Agriculture has been around for 12,000, this changed the lifestyle of people from hunting and gathering to permanent settlements with a steady food source (“Development of Agriculture”). From this, civilizations and cities grew, food could now be grown to meet the demands of the ever growing global populations. Since the development of agriculture advancement has been made to feed the population. One of the many modern advancements has been genetically modified organisms. Genetically Modified Organism, is the results of a laboratory process, where genes from the DNA of one of the species are extracted, and artificially forced into the genes of an unrelated plant or animal. Some of the unanswered questions about GMO’s have been what they are, companies that are involved,

RNA interference, or RNAi, is a biological process in which RNA molecules reduce the gene expression of an organism. This is done typically by causing the destruction of specific mRNA molecules. RNAs are direct products of genes, these small RNAs can bind to other mRNA molecules to either increase or decrease their activity like in the example of preventing an mRNA from producing a protein. There are two types of RNA molecules that are central to RNAi, these molecules are, micro RNA (miRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA).

Structure and function in Biology is a broad concept that can be explored within a diverse range of topics across the subject matter. The following essay will be focussed mainly on the subject of Deoxyribonucleic Acid, or more commonly DNA. DNA is a highly complex, intricate and extraordinary macromolecule found within all living cells. DNA is a "biochemical noun" and can be defined as "...a self-replicating material which is present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information." [Oxford Dictionary, c2016] DNA is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, enclosed within a double membrane. Eukaryotic cells are multifaceted and require a high level of regulation to ensure smooth functioning. The double membrane of the nucleus allows gene expression, a key function of DNA, to be efficiently regulated.

The dsRNA can be delivered to the worms in many ways, but in this particular experiment, the bacteria containing plasmid for dsRNA is fed to the worms. The dsRNA is able to move throughout cells in worms by the pore created by SID-1

The concept of intentionally altering an organism’s DNA in order to produce genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has been critically analyzed by both science and the mainstream media in the last decade. However, the genetic modification of organisms is not a recent innovation as humans have been modifying organisms for over 30 000 years (Rangel, 2015). Back then, breeding through artificial selection was the most prominent method of genetic engineering. Organisms with the most desirable traits would be bred together in order to create a new generation of superior organisms. Throughout the centuries, the developments in science and technology have resulted in new methods of genetic engineering. Now, genomes can be spliced in order to insert or remove genes. It has essentially come down to a copy and paste process with genes from animals being inserted into plants as the common practice.

Genetically modified crops are an incredibly important issue that everyone should be aware of since it is something we are exposed to at a daily basis. Genetically modified crops also known as GM crops or Biotech crops has been one of the most heated debates of issues within our society. The debate about the safety, concerns and disadvantages of GM crops have raged since the mid 1990 's but this is due to the lack of knowledge of the general public. Many people are unaware of what the GM crops actually are and what they offer. Genetically modified crops are plants that are used in the agriculture and have been modified to initiate a new trait to plants that does not happen naturally in the species. These plants are modified using genetic engineering techniques to enhance desired traits. GM crops are made when genes of commercial interest are transferred from one organism to another.() There are many methods used for the production of GM crops but the two primary used for plant insertion are gene guns and agrobacterium tumefaciens. There are also three types of modifications which are transgenic, cisgenic, and subgenic plants. However, there are a number of issues that surround this controversial topic such as environmental, health, and economic concerns. Even though there are some worrying facts about GM crops people don 't realize the advantages or the ways it has helped humans as well as animals. There are many reasons why GM crops are proven

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or in its’ simple form DNA, contains the code for all characteristics of an organism which is completed by a double helix structure. The structure is made up of a back bone and the four gene groups which include thymine, adenine, cytosine and guanine. The double helix structure contributes to the cell division process

When you walk into your local grocery store, you can observe floor-to-ceiling shelves packed with foods boasting about nutritional benefits: whole grains in cereals, omega-3s in eggs, and lycopene (an antioxidant) in ketchup, but there are ingredients hiding in these products that many of us do not know are present. They are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO’s), and it has been estimated that over 75% of processed foods on supermarket shelves contain genetically engineered ingredients, which Americans have been eating since 1996. “Currently up to 85% of the United States’ corn is genetically engineered (GE), as are 91% of soybeans and 88% of cotton (cottonseed oil is often used in food products)” (About Genetically Modified Foods). What does it mean when a food is Genetically Modified? To understand what Genetically Modified Organisms are, there needs to be an understanding of what DNA is. “Within the tissues of a plant are cells. Within the cell is the nucleus. Within that are chromosomes composed of the DNA molecule, which in turn is made up of a sequence of base pairs. A simplistic description is that sequence of the genes in the DNA determine the sequence in the RNA, which then determines the sequence of the building blocks of proteins, called amino acids. These proteins can determine a particular trait or characteristic” (Latham). Using genetic engineering, scientists take genes from bacteria, viruses, or other sources and force them into the DNA of a plant.

In 1953, scientists James Watson and Francis Crick revealed the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): the double helix. Through this groundbreaking revelation, many scientists are now able to edit and alter genes in foods such as tomatoes, milk, and corn. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) should be banned in the United States because of their environmental, social, and economical consequences.

Genetic modification of organisms is something the human race has been doing for thousands of years, starting with the first domestication of animals around 10,000 years ago. (Root, 2) Many of these genetic alterations were at a basic level, an example of this being the cross breeding of dogs to achieve desirable traits. Additionally, importation of new plants or animals into areas they didn’t historically come form, forced adaptations from these organism to survive. More recently, scientists have begun to understand genetic engineering at the DNA level, and expand its use into the altering of plants genetic code. (Goldbas) Scientists are now gaining insight into

RNA interference also known as gene knockdown was a process used to genetically modify Daisy the cow. RNA interference works by preventing messenger RNA’s from being converted into proteins. The scientist who genetically modified daisy designed micro RNA’s that bind both cow and sheep messenger RNA’s on BLG and tested which micro RNA prevented BLG production. The micro RNA’s were then used to create RNA interference and block messenger RNA’s from being converted into the protein BLG. RNA interference works by double stranded RNA being cut into smaller pieces by an enzyme called ‘dicer’. These small pieces of RNA then bind to proteins called Argonaut proteins which is part of a group of proteins called the RNA induced silencing complex. After this, one strand of the RNA is removed, leaving the other strand to join up with the messenger RNA. Once bound together, the Argonaut protein can then destroy the messenger RNA resulting in a knock down of a certain gene or protein in daisy’s case.

Humans have been manipulating the genetic code of not only us but various organisms that inhabit earth. From fruit to plants to animals. We have also been tampering with the idea of cloning to make an identical copy of the original organism. However, processes such as SCNT cloning and gene knockdown are not without their implications, both successful and failures.

DNA is a self-replicating material that's present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information. The shape of DNA is a double helix, the sides are made of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules. The sugar is deoxyribose. The rungs of the ladder are pairs of 4 types of nitrogen bases. A base pair is two chemical bases bonded to one another forming a the rungs DNA ladder. The DNA molecule consists of two strands that wind around each other like a twisted ladder. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a subtype of RNA. An mRNA molecule carries a portion of the DNA code to other parts of the cell for processing. mRNA is created during transcription. During the transcription process, a single strand of DNA is decoded by RNA

The risk of genetic engineering to the human health differs greatly from the conventional selective breeding method, because in contrast to humans and animals, the process of genetically engineering foods contains exclusive chemical enzymes and selective genes from a specific organism. According to, Genetically Engineered Food, by Ronnie Cummins, the original cell is cut, molded and given a copy of a resistance gene; then artificially penetrates the plant cell, instantly becoming immune to combating insects and chemical pesticides. The corporations of genetically engineered seed companies “are pushing for herbicide-resistance genetically engineered seeds”(Cummins, 25), which eliminates threats to the plant. The brilliant idea has lead manufactures

It is greatly involved in immunity. Mostly in plants, it is greatly involved in the immune response system to prevent viruses and harmful genetic material from damaging the cell. In animals, the RNAi pathway serves an antiviral purpose, providing protection against pathogens, bacteria, and other harmful organisms that could potentially put the cell in danger. Jaronczyk’s findings exaplain that RNAi pathways also play a large role in the regulation of development of cell growth and development. It regulates the timing of morphogenesis, a process which organizes the special distribution of cells during its embryotic development stages. It also regulates the maintenance of undifferentiated cell types, or those who are not yet specialized. Finally, RNAi pathways help in RNA activation, and event in which specific short dsRNA molecules bring about the targeted gene expression. Even evidence of RNA interference pathways are relevant in the everyday lives of humans such as insecticides, genetically engineered foods, and new treatments for cancer as described by Hannon in RNAi: A Guide to Gene Silencing