The Development Of The Cortex

In this video, Mark discusses the interaction between our ‘primitive brain’ and our ‘neo-cortex’, explaining how the two work together to form opinions of other people. How does Mark’s explanation of this interaction between our primitive brain and neo-cortex help us to understand the following quotation from our course textbook? “Changing a buyer’s attitudes and beliefs is the most difficult challenge a salesperson faces.”

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may be a disorder in the brain, caused by genetic, environmental or neural levels. Autism effects data processing in the brain by alerting how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; how this occurs not understand. (Johnson.2004)

According to (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013), the brain begins to mature even before birth and it continues to mature throughout life. According to (Jetha & Segalowitz, 2012) all the brain functions do not mature at the same rate. A child with highly advanced verbal skills may develop gross and fine motor control more slowly and have trouble learning to write clearly (Jetha & Segalowitz, 2012). Learning differences are also related to genetics, temperament and environment (Thierry, 2008). As child born it has a function govern like their heartbeats, eating and sleeping.

Park, H. R., Lee, J. M., Moon, H. E., Lee, D. S., Kim, B.-N., Kim, J., … Paek, S. H. (2016). A Short Review on the Current Understanding of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Experimental Neurobiology, 25(1), 1–13. http://doi.org/10.5607/en.2016.25.1.1

In the article Autism Society, Studies shown that autism caused by having a surplus of synapses, connections between brain cells. The surplus slowdown in the normal pruning process that occurs during childhood and adolescence brain development. In many families, there are patterns of autism or related disabilities that have a genetic basis. Children who have autism may have inherited, although researchers don’t know the direct cause of autism, they’re still investigating many numbers of theories, including the links among heredity, genetics and medical problems.

V0 identity marker) reside in lamina VIII, which is a chief commissural site. They receive input from excitatory V2a cells, and may be excitatory or inhibitory depending on the subclass (Crone et al., 2008). V0d cells have recently been shown to not only project their axons toward contralateral motor neurons, but exhibit increased activity during locomotion, thereby contributing to left-right coordination (Griener et al., 2015).

Neurological disorders are complex in nature and often the least understood. Given the recent boom in imaging technology and other diagnostic methods, it is now possible to see more clearly into the scope of neurological development and accurately determine the etiology of these diseases. One of such disorders is Autism; a multifactorial condition impairing normal brain development. It affects many aspects of development, including social behavior, cognitive ability and communication skills1 and is commonly diagnosed in children before the age of three1. The symptoms of this condition can vary greatly between individuals; hence its classification as a spectrum disorder. Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome and pervasive

Symptoms typically are apparent before children turn 3 years old. (7). When individuals are born as an identical twin or have first degree relatives who have autism, they are automatically at a higher risk for developing it themselves. Other risk factors include immune dysregulation, altered short chain fatty acids, genetic mutations involving the metabolism of vitamin D, infections, teratogens, or antibodies maternally. For every 68 boys who are born, 1 will likely have autism, as boys are about five times more likely to present with autism than girls are. (3). When the brains of patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder are studied and compared with those who do not have the disorder, there are obvious differences. In the Autism Spectrum Disorder brain, there are alterations to the striatal circuits, a dysfunction in canonical neural circuits, and an abnormal basal ganglion connectivity. These striatal dysfunctions of the brain are evidence as to why abnormal behaviors occur in autistic patients (repetitive grooming, stereotypic motor routines, and deficits in social interaction and decision-making). There may even be evidence that links genetics to these specific neural circuits. (8). When MRI’s are taken on young autistic patients, the hyperplasia of their cerebral cortex can often be seen. Because the frontal and temporal lobes are important for social functioning and language development, these anatomical anomalies are likely to underlie the pathophysiology of autism.

Irene Gutierrez thesis aims to understand the role of Shh in two very important aspects of brain development:

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a class of NDD affecting mostly males, which are largely idiopathic and display extensive variation in terms of phenotype, severity and degree of heritability [2]. It is postulated that the pathology of ASD is the result of a complex interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental risk factors, which disturb the developing brain [1]. ASD commonly involve deficits in social interaction and cognition, language, emotional learning and the presence of repetitive, stereotyped behaviours [1, 3, 4]. The brains of autistic children display reductions in long distance connectivity, abnormally regulated apoptosis and cell division, and increased inflammation [4].Additional studies have demonstrated gliosis, abnormal neuronal migration and

Glial cells are the most numerous cells in the brain, outnumbering neurons nearly 3:1, although smaller and some lacking axonal and dendritic projections. Once thought to play a subpar role to neurons, glial cells are now recognized as responsible for much greater functions. There are many types of glial cells, including: oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath in the CNS, by wrapping themselves around the axons of neurons. Their PNS counterpart, Schwann cells, are also considered glial cells. This sheath insulates the axon and increases the speed of transmission, analogous to the coating on electrical wires. Microglia are considered to be “immune system-like”; removing viruses, fungi, and other wastes that are present. Astrocytes, however, are considered to be the most prominent. Their functions span throughout the brain, including, but not limited to: the synchronization of axonal transmission via G-protein-coupled receptors, blood flow regulation via the dilation of blood vessels, and the performance of reactive gliosis in conjunction with microglia. Both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes develop from neuroepithelial cells. Other types of glial cells include Radial glia, which direct immature neuron migration during development.

Pachygyria represents similar disorder with less severe pathology than in lissencephaly, as areas of normal laminar organization can be seen. However, these two conditions are not mutually exclusive and can occur together in the same brain, thus they are considered as different degrees of the same fundamental disorder in cell migration and cortical

Questions about the human brain have been a topic that many scientists and philosophers have focused on for centuries, trying to understand and learn the way it truly works . Over these past ten years, scientists have been the most successful in brain development, due to a large amount of research on this fascinating subject. Different ways to keep the brain stimulated have been an important topic while learning about the brain over the years due to its large importance. The human brain needs to be worked everyday in order for it to maintain a healthy state. Every time a new piece of information is taken in, different areas of your brain are put to use. It has been found that the more often stimulation of the brain occurs it enables the brain to be able to perform better on a daily basis and for longer periods of time.

Brain development in the first two years is the most important and critical. Maria Montessori referred to this time as of the "absorbent mind" Early brain development is the frame work for the road ahead. When and how the brain develops in the first two years will play a critical role into adulthood. At birth, the brain is the only incomplete organ. The brain will continue to grow through childhood and adolescents.

You live and you learn, from the moment that we breathe our first breath, we are assimilating and are acquiring information. Life changing and profound learning experiences happen before we can even speak, as children our learning process is grandiose. Harvard University published a series of summaries on Child development. One of these articles mentions that “The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through an ongoing process that begins before birth and continues into adulthood.” ("InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood Development," n.d.).