The Growing Problem of Resistance to Antibiotics

Antibiotics are inarguably one of the greatest advances in medical science of the past century. Although the first natural antibiotic Penicillin was not discovered until 1928 by Scottish biologist Alexander Flemming, evidence exists that certain plant and mold growths were used to treat infections in ancient Egypt, ancient India, and classical Greece (Forrest, 1982). In our modern world with the advent of synthetic chemistry synthetic antibiotics like Erithromycin and its derivative Azithromycin have been developed. Antibiotics have many uses including the treatment of bacterial and protozoan infection, in surgical operations and prophylactically to prevent the development of an infection. Through these applications, antibiotics have saved countless lives across the world and radically altered the field of medicine. Though a wonderful and potentially lifesaving tool, antibiotic use is not without its disadvantages. Mankind has perhaps been too lax in regulation and too liberal in application of antibiotics and growing antibiotic resistance is the price we must now pay. A recent study showed that perhaps 70% of bacterial infections acquired during hospital visits in the United States are resistant to at least one class of antibiotic (Leeb, 2004). Bacteria are not helpless and their genetic capabilities have allowed them to take advantage of society’s overuse of antibiotics, allowing them to develop

Antibiotic resistance evolves in bacteria. Charles Darwin created the theory of evolution which focused on natural selection being the key factor of how things change. Natural selection is when organisms that are better suited to the environment are able to reproduce successfully. Evolution is descent with modification. Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics by a mutation. The bacteria that did not die from the antibiotic inherited the gene from an ancestor that made it resistant. Since the other bacteria is dying faster than the resistant bacteria, the resistant bacteria are able to multiply

Antibiotic resistance is when microorganisms, such as bacteria, are able to survive an exposure to antibiotics and these bacteria are now resistant to the effects of these antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria has been an issue since antibiotics were discovered. The fact that bacteria can become resistant to our medical treatments such as antibiotics is a natural evolutionary process, but there are certain human contributions that definitely speed up the process. For example, one of the main contributions that will be discussed is the problem of over prescription of the antibiotic drugs. The

The misuse and overdose of the antibiotics increase the resistance problem. It can cause these bacteria to

Widespread use of antibiotics has been very controversial in the media as well in the general population. Due to these controversies, it is very misunderstood to how antibiotics work leading to many patients in the hospital setting wanting to take them when it is not necessary or refusing to take when it is necessary for their survival. Some of this controversy is due to antibiotic resistance, which has spread an alarming rate in the 21st century (Walsh, 2000). Antibiotic resistance is the result of very strong bacteria or microbes that are resistant to the antibiotic prescribed and those microbes accumulate overtime by their survival, reproduction and transfer, leading to increased levels of antibiotic resistance.

Antibiotic resistance happens when bacteria come into contact with an antibiotic over and over again.

Without a doubt, the issue with antibiotic resistance has become one of the most urgent health problems in the world. Recent studies have proven that antibiotics are becoming less effective in the recent years. For instance, developing countries like China and Kuwait experienced rapid growth in antibiotic resistance. In the years between 1994 and 2002 the reported cases of hospital and community-acquired antimicrobial infections for China boosted from 22% to 41% and Kuwait also experienced an average of 17% growth from 1999 to 2003 (Zhang 1). As the prevalence of superbugs is becoming more common due to excessive or incorrect use of penicillin and quinolones, people are more susceptible to contact this lethal microbe. The existence of antibiotic is meant to be beneficial to the human population because the drug itself is very effective at curing illnesses and enhancing food safety (Clemmitt 1). At the same time, people are generating a more serious issue by overusing the drugs.

Studies show that twenty-three thousand out of two million with infection dies because antibiotic resistance(Center for Disease Control). What exactly is antibiotic resistance and how did bacterias become resistant

Bactericidal antibiotics kill bacteria by interfering with the cell wall or organelle formation. (News Medical, 2004) Bacteriostatic antibiotics interfere with the cell’s metabolic processes, such as DNA replication and protein synthesis. (News Medical, 2004) Both actions inhibit the cells vital processes, causing cell death. (Crierie & Grieg, 2010) However, superbugs, such as strains of Staphylococcus aureus, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis are deadly as they are very difficult to treat due to their resistance to multiple antibiotics. (NPS MedicineWise, 2012) Previously, Staphylococcus aureus was treated with benzyl penicillin. Currently, however, the bacteria cannot be controlled through this method, as they have developed resistance, which occurs because bacteria have the ability to mutate. After antibiotic contact, bacteria can alter their DNA in a way that enables them to resist the antibiotics. Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms and produce asexually by binary fission, thus their offspring have no genetic diversity. The only source of genetic variation in bacteria is through mutation. (Crierie & Grieg, 2010) Mutation refers to changes in gene sequences, resulting in variation in subsequent generations. This process occurs in every millionth to ten-millionth cell. (Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics, 2014) Certain types of mutations cause different types of resistance. They may enable

Antibiotics are used incorrectly and become resistant when a patient misuses it. By overusing or underusing antibiotics, the bacteria will adapt and become resistance to the antibiotic. When people stop taking antibiotics to treat an infection before all the bacteria is wiped out, the existing bacteria survive, adapt, and multiply. When patients overuse the antibiotics, the antibiotics kill all the bacteria, including the good ones that help defend the body. Some of the bacteria will remain because of mutations that provide them with immunity and will continue to reproduce with developed resistance to the antibiotic, with the antibiotic having no effect and without any good bacteria left. Another way bacteria becomes resistant is through animals that have been given antibiotics. The bacteria can become resistant in animals and be transferred to humans through animal

First, antibiotic resistance is the ability of infections to evolve. These new adaptations will frequently allow an infection to withstand attacks from a drug it previously could not handle. When physicians treat infections with drugs, the drug kills off all of the bacteria that cannot stand up to the medication. Sometimes, a few bacteria remain that were able to combat the drug. These bacteria continue to grow and reproduce. As a result, all of its offspring also have the DNA necessary to fight off the medication. These

There are many injurious and deadly bacteria that can widely spread and affect the body. One of the most common bacteria that are now known to have developed resistance to antibiotics is Staphylococcus aureus. The Staphylococcus aureus bacterium was discovered during the 1800’s. S. aureus is a common cause of skin infections, food poisoning and respiratory disease. The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant forms of pathogenic S. aureus is a universal problem in clinical medicine. This bacterium caused painful skin conditions. Penicillin as mentioned has been an early cure for these bacterial infections, this has

For a bacterium to become resistant a change in its DNA must occur. This can happen in more than one way. Bacterium may gain resistance through spontaneous mutation within the bacterium’s DNA. This occurs when a single amino acid that makes up a protein changes arrangement, the order of the peptide chain (made up of amino acids, joined together to make up proteins) then the purpose of the protein in the DNA changes. This causes the genetic makeup of the cell to alter. If the mutation is of benefit and gives the bacteria resistance, once all the other none resistant strains of bacteria are killed, the resistant bacteria multiplies and reproduces, creating a new strain of bacteria which is resistant to the antibiotic in hand. Once a resistance gene is obtained and inserted into the DNA, the bacterium can dominate other bacteria and

Supporting Data:Over the past century of antibiotic discovery and development, few parallel and independent lines of discovery have been fruitful. The development of strategies to prevent the evolution of resistance strains of microbes has been a top priority. In clinical practice, several measures that have been tested to reduce the incidence of resistance development, including

Take for example MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), a S. aureus strain that was discovered in 1961 to be resistant to the antibiotic methicillin. Webmd indicates that MRSA has now grown its resistance from methicillin to “amoxicillin, penicillin, oxacillin and many other common antibiotics” (MRSA). This increase in resistance of a methicillin-resistant strain of S. aureus can be attributed to the increasing use and overuse of antibiotics, not only in the doctor’s office but also in agriculture. MRSA is only one of many antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria. New resistant strains are evolving rapidly. According to Dr. Ed Warren, “there are high levels of antibiotic resistance in bacteria causing common infections (e.g. urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections) in all regions of the world” (21).