The Importance Of Micrornas

This scholarly article gives an in-depth overview of the practice of monitoring the effects of genetically modified organisms on the environment. A spanning look at the types of soil organisms best suited for study in relation to GMOs is provided as well as known negative effects on soil organisms. Studying soil structures and organisms provides researchers with information that can be used to determine whether or not GMOs interact with the environment differently than non-GMOs.

The ability to transform cell cultures and incorporate foreign DNA into other tissues is a key component to studying gene function which allows research to further in biotechnology (Gao and Nielson, 2013). The most commonly used biotechnology methods for integrating foreign genes into plant cells are Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and Biolistic delivery mediated transformation (Gao and Nielson, 2013). For the purpose of this technical review paper, the focus will be on the biolistic delivery method, and primary scientific literature that incorporates this technique in their studies.

The modification at fifth carbon position of a cytosine ring (addition of methyl group to the 5` position of cytosine, thus converting cytosine to 5-methylcytosine (5mC)) is called as DNA methylation. In plants, DNA methylation has usually found in three contexts, methylation at CG, CHG (H replacing A, C or T) and at CHH sites (Chen et al., 2010; Zemach et al., 2010). This DNA methylation accumulated during vegetative phase under influence of environment will be transmitted to next generation through germline

Aside from human health, genetically modified organisms have serious negative impacts on the environment. One of those is the effect on pollinators. Most of the earth 's plants depend on insects for pollination and it is crucial that agricultural activities do not disrupt this natural ecosystem (Padgette, 1996). However, genetically modified crops do not fulfill this fundamental requirement. Even though genetically modified crops are more resistant to pests and viruses and can survive even under the harshest conditions, modified genes from genetically engineered crops can be transferred into other wild species, causing various unwanted outcomes (Smith, 2005). Transgenic genes from genetically modified crops can be transferred in various ways to different species, including plants, insects, bacteria and viruses.

This study successfully demonstrated that CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis in grapes and that the frequency of mutagenesis is relatively stable and efficient. (13) This study also shows a lot of promise for future engineering of altered plants. This study also shows support that CRISPR and Cas 9 can be used to engineer a new plant type, giving scientists another mechanism of plant

The term GMO Plants (genetically-modified organisms) is most commonly used to refer to crop plants created for human, or animal consumption using the latest molecular biology techniques. These plants have been modified in the laboratory to enhance desired traits such as increased resistance to herbicides and improved nutritional content. The enhancement of desired traits has traditionally been undertaken through breeding, but conventional plant breeding methods can be very time consuming and are often not very accurate. Genetic engineering can create plants with the exact desired trait very rapidly and with great accuracy.

Genetic modification of plants has been in use by farmers for many years. During the early farming, seeds of good producing crops were kept and preserved for use in the next season. Moreover, hybrids or crossbred plants have been established for various types of crops. Although, these plants are not recognized as GMOs since they are manipulated naturally, i.e. there is no recombinant DNA technique in introduction of new gene. There are various methods of introducing a gene into a plant. The common method uses agrobacterium, a genetic promoter and a soil bacterium from cauliflower mosaic virus. Other genetically tailored organisms (GMOs) are those resistant to drought or fungi, and those resistant to herbicides, thus delayed for ripening of fruits, therefore, increasing crop yield (Ahmed, 2002).

Genome sequencing of a plant creates a genomic resource for the plant with the help of which further studies can be conducted on it. But this kind of a comprehensive resource is only available for a few species. The plants that are recently making their presence felt internationally lack this kind of a resource despite having numerous health benefits. A valid collection of genome wide screening markers can add to the genomic resource for such plants. One such crop is Stevia rebaudiana, belonging to the genus Stevia of the sunflower family (Asteraceae), commonly known as Stevia, Sweet Leaf, Sweet herb of Paraguay, Honey Leaf and Candy Leaf (Madan et al., 2010). Although it is native to Paraguay, it is now successfully being cultivated throughout the world as an important exotic crop. It is widely grown for its sweet leaves, the source of sweetener products known to contain 4–15% of steviosides which are estimated to be 100–300 times sweeter than sucrose (Mondaca et al. 2012; Ishima and Katayama, 1976; Tanaka, 1982; Raji Akintunde Abdullateef and Mohamad Osman, 2012). Being a zero calorie sweetener it is finding wide market as it is safer and healthier since calories can lead to obesity, a risk factor for some chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, etc(Savita, Sheela, Sunanda, Shankar, & Ramakrishna, 2004). Research also shows its effect on decrease in fertility of male rats (Melis 1999) and adult female rats of proven fertility

There are two ways to introduce the genes of other species into plants. The most popular and effective method is Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The other is particle bombardment.

Olive, or scientific name Olea europaea L which belongs to Oleacea family is a valuable plant species where it can produce oil and table olives. Gene at certain tissue in species will be expressed where cDNA are sequenced to produce expressed sequence tag (EST) library. EST database is beneficial as it allows new gene discovery, marker discovery, gene mapping, and functional studies to be carried out. This research has contributed EST library of 2304 clone sequences from the young olive leaf and 1536 clone sequences from the immature olive fruit for Turkish olive cultivar Gemlik. Good quality ESTs are used to further analysed by using Phred-Phrap and Contig Assembly Program 3 (CAP3) software. They were then submitted to

Despite the fact most biotech plants currently grown commercially were cultivated by the expression of transgenes, different employing RNA silencing have been recognized by

2011). The genes have been awoken in multiple angiosperm plants throughout the evolution of today’s modern plants. These genes have not been found in gymnosperms. The genes are only being utilized when in seed form for most flowering plants. Being able to switch these genes on like a light switch, in the tissue and fiber of conventional crops will aid in our fight against world hunger.

Germplasm can be a leaf, a piece of stem, pollen or even just a few cells from a plant (3). It is a living tissue that grows into a new plant (3). National Plant Germplasm System global food is an availability and security for the agricultural production. The importance of germplasms is to produce plants for food, fibers, animal feeds, industrial and medicinal purposes, and for landscape and ornamental uses (4). With the increasing knowledge, many farmers are learning how to plant breeders, increase crop yields, and enhance quality. Plants carry DNA, which is primary genetic information that is carried in plants to make a duplication of the same crop. Germplasm is important for the living genetic resources of seed and tissue that help maintain the breeding and conservation. The gene flow is different since germplasm exchanges in different regions, which occurs frequently, and something that makes a very big admixture are human transferring genes (6). Living organisms from all sources such as terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems are biodiverse (2). New plant breeders have to be approved by the genetic diversity of germplasms in order to grow plants and crops. This paper will be discussing the importance of germplasm such as genetic diversity, theories on heredity, and biodiversity.

It was in the year 1990 that transgenic introduction of a gene silenced endogenous gene expression in plant (Petunia) was first achieved by the introduction dsRNA. It was found that it is processed by Dicer into a 21-23nt small

In plants, Salicylic acid is important in the establishment of both local and systemic acquired resistance (SAR) analogous to innate immunity in animals. It helps in accumulation of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins. Blocking SA accumulation by expressing Salicylate hydroxylase which causes its degradation prevent induction of PR genes. When some parts of a plant gets infected with viruses like Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV), locally produced SA sends signal to all other regions to get ready for a potential infection. Methyl Salicylate is one of the important signal for SAR derived from SA, which is not present in plant but is synthesized upon pathogen infection. SA in cell is converted to methyl salicylate by an SA carboxyl methyltransferase and this volatile derivative is an important long distance signal. Methyl Salicylate is then recognized by Salicylic acid binding protein 2 (SABP2) enzyme, which exhibits 150 times more affinity to SA than catalase which helps in conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. When SA