The Milwaukee Outbreak

An investigation was necessary to find the cause of the outbreak, and how to stop it from continuing to spread. The campus clinic was interested in testing the following nine patients: Sue, Jill, Anthony, Wanda, Maggie, Maria, Arnie, Marco, and Alvin. All of the students have similar symptoms and agreed to being tested except for Alvin.

To fully comprehend the effect the yellow fever had on Pennsylvania in 1793, it is necessary to understand disease itself. This instance of widespread yellow fever in Philadelphia is known as an epidemic. An epidemic occurs when there is a pathogen present in the same area area as vulnerable a large number of people vulnerable to the said pathogen. Another common term for an epidemic is outbreak, but an outbreak usually occurs within a more limited area than an epidemic. An epidemic or outbreak can be brought on by an increase of a microbe that causes illness, the introduction of a disease-causing microbe into a new environment, a change to the environment that allows the pathogen to spread more readily, hosts in an area becoming more

In September 2012, the United States faced an issue of unprecedented number and range of impact. It was during this time that the United States faced its largest fungal meningitis outbreak to be documented. (Smith) The first documentation of the fungal meningitis occurred in ten individuals in Tennessee and North Carolina shortly after October 1, 2012. (Morbidity and Mortality) The investigation into the outbreak began with the U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) working alongside local and state healthcare agencies which would report the numbers of infection. (Smith) These investigations which spanned the entire nation focused on preservative-free methylprednisolone acetate (MPA) originating from a single compounding

The Kelly outbreak is a famous phenomenon in Australia's colonial history. Whilst some people prefer to see the outbreak as a simple criminal incident between an outlaw and the police, most historians view it as a broader sociological phenomenon, involving conflict between a larger rural community and the colonial authorities.

In Chicago, corpses lay undisturbed for weeks, until horse-drawn wagons went through the streets and the call came for the living to bring out their dead. In some places they ran out of coffins and threw bodies into mass graves. Thousands of American soldiers at sea died in troop transports that became known as death ships. Their bodies were tipped into the Atlantic to avoid infecting survivors, but nothing could halt the spread of the virus. "If the epidemic continues its mathematical rate of acceleration," wrote a prominent U.S. public health official, Dr. Victor Vaughn, "civilization could easily disappear [within] a few more weeks."

The Black Death can be considered to be the most dangerous disease outbreak in history. When this catastrophic event emerged, no doctor or priest had any idea why it was occurring or where it came from. Today we now know how it spread and the impact of the plague it had on the economy at the time.

It was very fascinating to learn that this case study of what was happening in Chicago was fairly analogous to the public health changes throughout the nation. After reading the case study, one can be certain that the history of Public health has certainly had it’s share of ups and downs.

It’s amazing and scary at the same time not realizing everything that is going on in the world around us. The outbreak in San Diego is something that I probably would have never known happened if it wasn’t for you reading the article. Hep A is something that one can recover from although without treatment it can cause acute liver failure and this could lead to death in some. The biggest spreader is dirty hands, as we all know, and the city trying to make sure that everyone washes their hands is a start. After the outbreak the city did immunize almost 20,000 people and they are offering free immunizations to everyone. The city is also working with the county to install more handwashing stations across the city. With there being almost 400 people hospitalized and 16 deaths, I am sure this outbreak has affected everyone in the area.

Milwaukee is the largest city and the main economic and cultural center of Wisconsin. Situated on the western shore of Lake Michigan, Milwaukee lies at the confluence of three rivers—the Kinnickinnic, the Menomonee, and the Milwaukee—while several smaller rivers also flow through the city. The county seat of Milwaukee County, the city encompasses a total area of 96.8 square miles. With a population of 594,833 residents and a wider metropolitan area of approximately 2 million, Milwaukee is the fifth largest city in the Midwestern United States and the 30th largest city in the entire country.

In the TGM, Johnson includes scientific evidence and tangents to enrich the story of the cholera epidemic on London. Johnson tries to get a “bird’s eye view” of seeing how cholera spread through London. In that way Johnson tries to get the reader to not only see individual stories of people who contracted cholera but to produce information on how it came about, what it is, and give as much background and insight to get the reader to see information they usually wouldn’t. Johnson also uses these scientific tangents to show modern era readers that based on what happened in London it forever affects us today. Johnson gives information on what happens and then he goes on a tangent explaining how essential the specific information plays a role in the development of London. He tries to bring the information of what happened two centuries ago to relate to modern readers. It was essential that Johnson gave extra information because it helped to further develop the story. Adding in these details answers the readers’ questions and gives an explanation on why something took place while reassuring the reader by giving factual research. It doesn’t take away from the story nor distract the reader from the central idea of the story. It adds more information to benefit the story as a whole by enriching the reading by giving factual evidence.

Although the Zika virus may be considered a new epidemic virus to many people in the United States Zika in fact has been a concern for Africa and Southeast Asia since the mid nineteen forties. Researchers now believe that the first strand of Zika that was traced back to a primate has now mutated into a more complex strand of virus. The newly formed outbreak of Zika started in western pacific islands and has spread to South America with high concentration of outbreaks in highly populated Brazil. The most recent outbreaks have been seen in the Caribbean Islands and Puerto Rico. Zika is an “ Abrovirus”, which is a virus that affects RNA in humans and is spread through arthropods such as mosquitoes. (Facui, 2016) Zika is a complex virus affecting individuals in particular ways; unlike strep throat that has specific signs and symptoms that doctors can diagnose. Zika may be viewed as a mild flu or in some cases in particular such as the reported case in the French Polynesia and Brazil of having neurological impacts on the patient. (Mlakar, 2016) New reports and studies have shown that the Zika virus can affect fetal development. Microcephaly in particular is a new- found impact on fetus development and mothers infected with the virus. The impacts of Zika are still being learned and only time will be able to present a cure to the virus, vaccines for other abrovirus are now being modified to help prevent the infectious spread of Zika. As headlines build and new cases are reported

The three worldwide pandemic outbreaks of influenza during the 20th century occurred in 1918, 1957, and 1968. These pandemics were named according to where they thought the strands originated. However, the Spanish flu of 1918 was so-named because it was Spain that officially declared there was a pandemic outbreak. It likely began in the United States. Many diseases come and go so to speak, but influenza has been around for many years. Although influenza often preys on the young, old, or weak, new strains come along and all people become vulnerable.

Considering that these hills and uplands are the main areas from where water catchment is made, sheep has been inferred as a source of waterborne Cryptosporidium spp. outbreaks in England (Nichols et al., 2006; McLauchlin et al., 2000). Furthermore, C. parvum was the hazardous microorganism in 84 per cent of sporadic cases detected in Scotland, supporting sheep faecal pollution of water sources as the leading cause of sporadic cryptosporidiosis (McLauchlin et al., 2000). These cases could be imply by the fact that sheep population increases every year, and so nowadays 22.9 million sheep are recorded in the UK (DEFRA, 2015), becoming a potential risk for hosting and later contagion of the parasite. Besides, sheep are widely distributed in higher hills than other livestock, managed differently with flock grazing large enclosures rather than being kept indoors. At the same time, a seasonal pattern with spring and autumn peaks of human cryptosporidiosis cases was observed, with the spring peak concurring with the lambing season (Cacció and Widmer, 2014, pp. 170-172; Mueller-Doblies et al., 2008; Pritchard et al., 2007). The evidence supports a link between the infections in humans and the contact with infected faeces of sheep (Hashim et al., 2006). Nevertheless; Cryptosporidium species have been isolated from cattle, goats, water buffalos and other livestock (Cacció and Widmer, 2014, pp. 170-172), thus not even removing sheep from grazing ground where water drinking is collected would eliminate the zoonosis. There is to consider that 9.8 million cattle are distributed in the UK (DEFRA, 2015), and such other livestock; representing a risk factor as well. Additionally, the protozoan may not be uniformly distributed through all sheep populations, thus specific ages, classes or

The objective of this study is to examine the role of the pathogen, Cryptosporidium parvum in human health and disease and public health. Included will be the appropriate microscopic, cultivation and non-cultivation methods for the chosen pathogen and the application to clinical microbiology processing for that bacterium. Also examined will be human and microbe relationships and an analysis of the virulence factors of microorganism and host factors to types and outcomes with public health emphasized. Crytosporidium parvum in as infectious agent reported to have the following characteristics: (1) Coccidian protozoa; sporozoa; (3) sexual and asexual cycles in a single host; (4) sporotoites, tophozoites and merozoites all attach to epithelial cells (typically intestinal cells); and (5) mature oocyst contains four thin, flat motile sporozoites (204 by 6-8µm). (Public Health agency of Canada, 2013, p.1)

Such high frequency of outbreaks is partly due to the common presence of cryptosporidium oocysts in the environment. Oocyst is the most important stage of cryptosporidium life cycle, which has thick cell walls that allow it to survive in the environment for long enough to find its host. Reproduction takes place inside the host and newly reproduced cryptosporidium will exit the host into the environment in feces, in the form of oocyst. It is an everlasting cycle where cryptosporidium goes back and forth between water and hosts, and its presence persists.