The most part of Roman history are remembered as its monumental structures that stood for millennia. One often wondered how it is possible for such large scale architecture to be standing against the test of time. It is the use of concrete. The endurance of intact constructions such as the Pantheon evinces the concretes’ durability, the durability that preserves the mechanical properties which resulting in the monuments’ continued survival .This paper discusses the implication 1 of Roman concrete from the production, the mechanical properties to the social and cultural context of concrete in imperial Rome.
Rome, situated on the Tiber River between the two volcanic districts, the Monti
Sabatini to the North, and the Colli Albani to the South, obtains most of its building stones from the volcanoes. 2 Building materials such as pozzolana, a kind of reddish volcanic sands, limestone and rubble that are found near Rome, are crucial to concrete
1 Brune, PF, AI Ingraffea, MD Jackson, and R Perucchio. 2012. The toughness of Imperial Roman concrete.
Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures. Korea Concrete Institute,
Seoul. 2
2 Lancaster, Lynne C. 2005. Concrete vaulted construction in Imperial Rome: innovations in context.
Cambridge University Press, August 8. 7
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production. Vitruvius wrote in his Ten Books of architecture that “[This] substance
(pozzolana), when mixed with lime and rubble... lends strength to buildings of other kinds… [which]
The Roman Empire fell of multiple reasons. Some say it was because leaders were corrupted or it was economic issues. The reasons that will be talked about further on are, surrounding cities invaded Rome, Christianity spread, and their borders became to hard to control.
They had been pushing since before World War I. The Indians were promised in the 1930’s that they would be granted independence but
Many events played large roles in the middle ages. The fall of the Western Roman Empire occurred when the invading army named the Visigoths invaded Rome. For three days, they destroyed everything in their paths. Western Rome did not have effective royal progression. They set up officers as rulers, who were immediately removed by adversary petitioners. The reasons why Western Rome fell includes multiple invasions by Barbarian tribes, economic hardship, being too reliant on slave labor, government corruption and political instability, and lastly Christianity became popular and the traditional values of Rome were lost. Another important event was whenever Charlemagne became an emperor in Western Rome. In his quest of becoming an emperor, he became King of the
Ancient Rome grew from a small town that was on central Italy's Tiber River into an empire that took up most of Europe, Britain, western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands (History, n.d.). Legend said that Rome was found by twin sons of Mars, Romulus and Remus were god of war. After 450 years as a republic," Rome became an empire in the wake of Julius Caesar's rise and fall in the first century B.C." (History, n.d.). What led to the rise and fall of the Roman Empire?
1. Although trade and travel were very important for Rome, trading and traveling had weakened after the fall of the Roman Empire. Traveling and especially trade were used to communicate with other countries and create a better economy. When the Roman Empire fell, so t =did the trading because of the lack of government and protection.
In 146 B.C.E. the Roman Republic marched on the city of Corinth, the most powerful and wealthiest city state at the time of the attack. The Romans easily conquered Corinth and established themselves as one of the most dominant forces the Mediterranean world had ever seen. The Romans were not finished yet, they gained control over the entire Mediterranean world, most of Western Europe, and many of the Asian territories taken over by Alexander the great. The Romans had great military institutions, powerful political views, the smarts, and learned many lessons on how to rule the large areas around them. The Romans expanded so greatly during the period of 300-50 B.C.E. because of the pure drive, and how badly they wanted to expand.
The Roman Empire thrived for many generations until the influence of both people of Rome and those outside Rome. Rome had been an advanced society with stable government, large cities, beautiful architecture, and advanced technology. Unfortunately it did not last forever and the fall affected Western Europe who was greatly influenced by Rome. Western Europe went from a high functioning society to a land of may manors. The causes of Rome's fall varied from invasions, overgrowth, and poor leaders.
The Roman Empire was one of the most popular empires that there ever was. It was also one of the largest as it went as far as Memphis in the South and Europe in the North (document 3). The empire’s location was not the best. Water practically surrounded the entire empire. The Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and Caspian Sea were all ports of water around it. However, that did not hold back the empire’s power, as it quickly adapted and used it to their advantage. Sea trade, deep harbors, and roads are a few of the ways that the Roman Empire used their location to help themselves.
The fall of the Roman Empire was an ambiguous process that many historians still ponder, and the components that made up the deterioration of the Empire remain obscure. However, what many historians fail to realize that the decline of the Roman Empire was the epitome of cause and effect. Properly analyzing the history behind the process leads historians to realize that it was a chain of circumstances that began with the political corruption of the Western empire. It was the catalyst for many of the other principal reasons for Rome’s decline. Political corruption was a fundamental factor that led to economic failure and superfluous military spending, all which contributed to the fall of Rome. Document 3, Roman ambassador to the Huns, 449 CE, illustrates how political corruption tore apart
Legalism made people want to follow all rules to avoid harsh punishments. People also wanted to because they didn’t want to bring dishonor to their family. This led to a stable society because everyone followed laws and stayed in order.
The Western Roman Empire is historically known for their drastic fall. Before they were an empire, 509 BC to 27 BC, they were a republic. The republic ended when Octavian changed his name to Augustus and took control. The empire was preserved from Augustus’s reign in 27 BC to the fall in 476 AD. What caused the fall of the empire? The social and cultural aspect in the Western Roman Empire was declining, as was the economy, which led to the weakening of the military- all causing the fall of the Roman Empire. The Roman culture was being changed dramatically, including the old Roman virtues. The economy was in trouble with jobs and therefore, money. And lastly, what some believe to be the main cause, the inability of the army to hold back the invaders.
Primarily social and economic factors influenced the downfall of the Roman Empire. External economic forces gradually brought their effects into the empire whilst internally Rome’s social fabric began to degrade. This socio-economic degradation seen in Ancient Rome is likely due to both Rome’s social and economic instability as well as the birth of the Christian faith in the Roman Empire. Part of the downfall of Rome can be attributed to external economic factors such as a lack of conquest and a large influx of slavery from without. Much of Rome’s economy “was fed by plundered wealth and by new markets in the semi-barbaric provinces” (Document 2.)
For their time period, The Romans were highly sophisticated people with technology and ideologies that had never before been seen. The ingeniousness and beauty of Roman architecture has not been lost on us in the 2000 years since it was built. Even today, we as conscious and aware people marvel at the superiority of Roman builder , and at the sheer scale of many of their projects. It is because of these dominant engineering skills and
In this quotation from the author Vitruvius, he explains the process and creation of concrete, emphasizes on its durability and how it can withhold the forces of nature. This new formula had a higher silica content then before, which essentially allowed to concrete to set under water and made it stronger then before.10 Overall, the use of concrete was crucial to construction in ancient Rome because it was extremely durable compared to other materials such as brick, stone, or wood.11 Having a successful and powerful empire was very important to the Roman’s as they believed that without a strong foundation, a strong empire would not be possible.12
The genius by Roman architects and engineers of the arch, vault and dome, improved their evolution of concrete, as well as working out probable problems of grand architecture, which is to bridge space (Roman architecture [sa]). Roofing a