The Over Expression Of Nad

As always following oxidation comes the reduction of the camphor to isoborneol. This step, taking place in a methanol solution, was completed by using sodium borohydride which was used as the ion donor. This reduction step

The AAP is a potential trigger of cytochrome P450 that induced the high reactive quinone-imine production. This matches with sulphahydryl groups in proteins and result in rapid depletion to intracellular glutathione(35). Generally, one parts of the potential intracellular antioxidant defensive system is glutathione that consumes the singlet oxygen, superoxide and hydroxyl radicals(36). Enhancing of intracellular flux of oxygen free radicals results from glutathione depletion leads to oxidative stress in hepatocytes(36). The increasing the serum levels of GOT, GPT and ALP have been attributed to the structural integrity hepatic damage(37). In liver tissue, GOT and GPT are located in cytosol and mitochondria. In following of liver damage, hepatocyte transport function disturbed

owever Levine,R et al concluded that methionine residues are more important than cysteine residues as an antioxidant defence. Oxidants can react with methionine to produce methionine sulfoxide and when exposed on the surface can protect the cell from oxidisation. Methionine sulfoxide can be reduced back to methionine by methionine sulfoxide reductase which allows the antioxidant process to function catalytically.

The roles of antioxidants( Endogenous compounds) are to neutralize the excess of free radicals, to protect the cells against their toxic effects and to contribute in disease

Antioxidants are molecules that find and destroy the free radicals floating in the bloodstream man. Free radicals are the main culprit for man is aging rapidly, destroying brain cells.

N-tert-Butyl isoquine (GSK369796) was designed to avoid the formation of quinone imines, and entered Phase I studies. It is potent in vitro, including in the chloroquine resistant strain K1 (EC50 = 13 nM) and is active in vivo with an ED50 = 3.8 mg/kg/day, thus being comparable to amodia- quine. In spite of the excellent exposures and near quantita- tive oral bioavailabili ties in animal models, its developmen t was discontinue d due to exposures insufficient to demonstrate drug safety superior to chloroquine.

Peroxynitrite is a powerful oxidant, formed from the reaction of nitric oxide and superoxide. It is known to interact with different biological molecules like DNA, lipids and proteins leading to their structural and functional alterations. These events elicit various cellular responses including cell signaling causing oxidative damage, committing cells to apoptosis or necrosis. The present paper delineates single strand breakage in DNA mediated by the formation of 8-nitroguanine and 8-oxoguanine. Different approaches of cell death such as necrosis and apoptosis are modulated by cellular energetics (ATP and NAD+). High concentrations of peroxynitrite are known to cause necrosis whereas low concentration leads to apoptosis. Peroxynitrite mediated

This free radical, which is initially formed as relatively unreactive, reacts very rapidly with oxygen to yield a highly reactive trichloromethyl peroxy radical (CCl3OO•). Both radicals are capable of binding to proteins or lipids, or abstracting a hydrogen atom from an unsaturated lipid, thus, initiating lipid peroxidation (Halliwell, and Gutteridge, 1990; Williams, and Burk, 1990; Lee, and Jeong, 2002). Lipid peroxidation may cause peroxidative tissue damage in inflammation, cancer, aging, ulcer, cirrhosis, and atherosclerosis. Therefore, inhibition of the cytochrome P450-dependent oxygenase activity could cause a reduction in the level of toxic reactive metabolites and a decrease in tissue injury. On the other hand, an elevation of plasma AST and ALT activities could be regarded as a sign of damage to the liver cell

Hydroquinoe is a compound found in numerous skin products that is used for lightening skin. It is contained in a lot of products that are aimed towards reducing the appearance of dark spots, freckles, and acne scars. Hydroquinoe unfortunately does cause some dangerous health concerns. For one, it causes skin irritation. Using this ingredient regularly can result in your skin starting to irritate. Some people have even experienced extreme redness and itching when they applied it to their skin.

These catalases perform two activities depending on the concentration of H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide). If the concentration is high, the catalase acts by removing the H2O2 and forming it into H2O and O2. That is called a catalytic reaction. On the other hand, if the concentration of H2O2 is low, the catalase removes the hydrogen peroxide, but it oxidizes the substrate. This performance is called a peroxidative reaction (Scibior & Czeczot, 2006). In two steps, the catalase can exterminate the hydrogen peroxide. In the first step, the hydrogen peroxide is the substrate that gets broken up. H2O (water) is released, but the extra O (oxygen atom) is attached to an iron ion. The second step consists of the hydrogen peroxide being broken. However, these pieces connect with the oxygen atom with

antioxidant enzymes including small-molecule-weight antioxidants depends on cellular redox environment as it is a delicate process to regulate the two. ROS are responsible to regulate several physiological actions such as the ability to mediate and relate signal transduction from membrane receptors, At low concentrations, ROS are involved in regulating several physiological actions, including their ability to mediate relate signal transduction from membrane receptors, thus aiding the stimulation of several proteins and enzymes (1,2). Conversely, accumulation of extra intracellular ROS lead to oxidative stress, in turn will impair cellular membranes, promoting mitochondrial injury and cell death, which adversely impacting upon cell function and survival 3,5)

As the glutathione conjugation (phase II) plays main role in metabolism of anticancer compound, this point will be focused on. Glutathione are one of the major mechanisms controlling cellular oxidative balance (Pei et al 2013, p.2). There are three main function of glutathione (GSH) according to Pei et al (2013, p.2) :

The result is what we call a free radical cascade, an enormous chain reaction of free radicals that quickly wreaks havoc on living tissue” (Howard). Because of the constant loss of one electron, the organic molecules affected by the free radical are being oxidized. This has caused scientists to refer to the process as “oxidative stress” (Nimse and Pal).

Exposure to ionizing radiation induces oxidative damage that leads to alteration of tissue physiological function as observed in the present study. This was evidenced by significant elevation in kidney MDA content. These results match the increase in lipid peroxidation post irradiation obtained by Srinivasan et al. (2007) and Pratheeshkumar and kuttan (2011). Free radicals generated by irradiation react with unsaturated lipids generating hydroperoxides, which in turn can induce changes in lipid bilayer thereby altering the membrane permeability and inducing lipid peroxidation (Suzuki et al. 1997). Also, significant elevation of kidney GSH contents were observed in irradiated rats. This increase in GSH level may be due to transcriptional

“Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are radicals or chemical species that partake in reactions that involve gaining or loss of electron (radical reactions) but are not true radicals in that they do not have unpaired electrons”. ROS include non-radical ROS such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hypochlorous acid (HOCl), ozone (O3) and singlet oxygen (1O2) while radical ROS consist of super oxide anion radicals (O2●-) and hydroxyl radical species (●OH). Besides oxygen-based radicals, reactive nitrogen species(RNS) such as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and peroxynitrile also exist (Magder, 2006).