The Penn Inventory Vs. Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale

It is normal, following a traumatic experience, for a person to feel disconnected, anxious, sad and frightened. However, if the distress does not fade and the individual feels stuck with a continuous sense of danger as well as hurting memories, then that person might in fact be suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PSTD could develop after a traumatic incident which threatens one’s safety or makes one to feel helpless (Dalgleish, 2010). Coping with traumatic events could be very difficult, but confronting one’s feelings and seeking professional assistance is usually the only way to properly treat PSTD. Many kids and adolescents worldwide experience events that are traumatizing. If exposure to trauma is not treated, it could lead to various mental health problems. Researchers have reported a connection between traumatization and increases in mood and anxiety disorders, but the most frequently reported symptoms of psychological distress are post-traumatic stress symptoms (Cohen, Mannarino & Iyengar, 2011).

PTSD is listed among a group called Trauma-and-stressor-Related Disorders. For a person to be diagnosed with PTSD, they must have been exposed to, witness, or experience the details of a traumatic experience (e.g., a first responder), one that involves “actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence” (APA, 2013, p. 271). (PRU, 2016, p. 66). The aforementioned definition of PTSD relates to soldiers; the manifestations and causes experienced with traditional PTSD can look somewhat different. Obvious causes of PTSD in soldiers stem from exposure to stressful circumstances within combat, exposure to the suffering and death of others, destruction, personal danger, and injury. A study on Vietnam soldiers provides insight on less obvious causes of PTSD. The study suggests

Childhood and adolescence is a crucial time for humans- a time full of physical, emotional, and cognitive development. Upon observing the significant impact that trauma induced stress can have on adults following time in combat or an injury, when adults have fully matured in all areas, it raises the question of what influence post-traumatic stressors can have on development in children. This issue was so significant that in the DSM-5, the psychologists introduced a new, and separate, section of criteria for PTSD that specifically relates to the preschool subtype, or those individuals six years and younger. The first age specific sub-type for this disorder is important due to the rising number of studies and cases of PTSD in children.

Trauma is perceived as a physical or psychological threat or assault to a person’s physical integrity, sense of self, safety and/or survival or to the physical safety of a significant other; family member, friend, partner. (Kilpatrick, Saunders, and Smith, 2003). An adolescent may experience trauma from a variety of experiences, including but not limited to: abuse (sexual, physical, and/or emotional); neglect; abandonment; bullying; exposure to domestic violence and/ or community violence; natural disasters; medical procedures; loss/grief due to a death of a family member(s); surgery; accidents or serious illness; and war (Kilpatrick, Saunders, and Smith, 2003).

When living with PTSD, there are outbreaks of panic and intense thoughts that relate to the event. (Parekh) These come from flashbacks and nightmares that lead to sadness, fear, anger, and a feeling of detachment. “But at night some of us would wake up from nightmares, sweating, screaming, and punching our own heads to drive out the images that continued to torment us even when we were no longer asleep.” (Beah 148) A diagnosis comes from exposure to an event that causes the victim enough trauma to have these types of episodes. These children soldiers are exposed to a large amount of violence within common massacres and village raids, desensitizing them to the act, and not be aware of the acts. Everything these kids go through in war leaves them with many traumatic memories that lead to PTSD, causing harsh flashbacks and nightmares that lead to hurting themselves and

Sixty percent of adults report experiencing abuse or other difficult family circumstances during childhood. (Mental Health Connection, N.D.). This shocking statistic exemplifies the high prevalence of childhood trauma. Furthermore, twenty-six percent of children in the United States will witness or experience a traumatic event before the age of four. (Mental Health Connection, N.D.) Trauma is an extremely common and complex phenomenon. But what is trauma? According to Merriam Webster, trauma is defined as, “a disordered psychic or behavioral state resulting from severe mental or emotional stress or physical injury.” (Merriam Webster, 2017). Dr. Lenore C. Terr from the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of America further describes trauma as unique to each individual. It can be caused by a series of events or one severe incident. Unfortunately, childhood trauma is usually experienced repeatedly. For example, many children endure sexual abuse, bullying, and severe family problems over and over again. Children may experience a variety of traumas that have lasting consequences on their mental health. Those who experience childhood trauma are more likely to develop psychological disorders. This occurs because their brains lack neuroplasticity, which inhibits their ability to adapt to various stressful circumstances.

At least 50% of all adults and children are exposed to a psychologically traumatic event (such as a life-threatening assault or accident, humanmade or natural disaster, or war). As many as 67% of trauma survivors experience lasting psychosocial impairment, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); panic, phobic, or generalized anxiety disorders; depression; or substance abuse.(Van der Kolk, et al, 1994) Symptoms of PTSD include persistent involuntary re-experiencing of traumatic distress, emotional numbing and detachment from other people, and hyperarousal (irritability, insomnia, fearfulness, nervous agitation). PTSD is linked to structural neurochemical changes in the central nervous system which may have a direct

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a disorder that develops in some people who have experienced a shocking, scary, or dangerous event (National Institute of Mental Health [NIH], 2016). It is said that the psychic trauma that an individual suffers after the shocking experience causes the inner agency of the mind to lose its ability to control the disorganizing effects of the experience, and disequilibrium occurs. Many traumatic events can cause PTSD, like combat exposure, child sexual abuse or physical abuse, terrorist attacks, sexual or physical assault, serious accidents, or natural disasters. However, not everyone that suffers a traumatic event may develop PTSD. According to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (2016), it is not yet clear why some people develop PTSD and others do not. Many factors influence on whether or not an individual will develop the disorder, such as: how intense the trauma was or how long it lasted. Whether or not the individual was injured or lost someone important to them. How close the individual was to the event. How strong their reaction was. How much the person felt in control of the events, or how much help and support the person received after the event (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 2016). PTSD is not exclusive to adults only, children can also have the disorder.

“American Psychiatric Association defines trauma as an event that represents a threat to life or personal integrity. Trauma can also be experienced when children are faced with a caregiver who acts erratically, emotional and /or physical neglect, and exploitation” (Maltby, L., & Hall, T. 2012. p. 304). Trauma comes in many different forms including: war, rape, kidnapping, abuse, sudden injury, and

Trauma occurs when a child has experienced an event that threatens or causes harm to her emotional and physical well-being. Events can include war, terrorism, natural disasters, but the most common and harmful to a child’s psychosocial well-being are those such as domestic violence, neglect, physical and sexual abuse, maltreatment, and witnessing a traumatic event. While some children may experience a traumatic event and go on to develop normally, many children have long lasting implications into adulthood.

The TSI, a 100 item self-report measure of posttraumatic stress and other psych sequelae of traumatic events, takes on a cognitive behavioral therapy and psychodynamic orientation. It is composed at a 5th grade reading level to ensure fairness and clarity to most, and it is fairly quick to take, and to score afterwards. Respondents are asked to rate how often each symptom has happened to them in the past 6 months. They rate the symptoms on a 4 point Likert scale ranging from 0 “never” to 3 “often.” It is composed of 10 clinical scales used to assess the variety of symptom domains related to trauma. The clinical scales are: Anxious Arousal (AA), Depression (D), Anger/Irritability (AI), Intrusive Experience (IE), Defensive Avoidances (DA), Dissociation

The authors of this literature review evaluated studies completed on adults who were 50 years or older and also experienced trauma as a child. They reviewed the impact childhood trauma has on their mental and physical health as older adults. They collected findings from 23 studies that were published between 1996 through 2011 and concluded that childhood trauma did in fact have negative effects on older adults mental and physical health. Although it is well known that trauma at a young age can have serious effects, especially on development, it is interesting to see how it also transitions into late adulthood.

Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was seen as a condition where people are shocked into fear of facing situations. Over the years, it was labeled as “Soldier’s Heart” in the post Civil war era and “Shell Shock” in the World War I. In a situation of ‘fight-or-flight’ an individual is triggered to escape from danger, however in PTSD this reaction is reversed in which case the individual feels a constant threat of danger even when there is no danger present.The person diagnosed with PTSD can be anyone from a child to an adult. Many causes of this disorder include traumatic events, knowing someone who is in danger, genetic factors, and more. Symptoms include

Symptoms of PTSD are also observed in patients with histories of long term exposure to ongoing traumatic events. Many times it is difficult for an observer to pinpoint the traumatic triggering event of PTSD due to the disorders nature. “The diagnosis of delayed-onset PTSD is one in which the symptoms do not manifest until a time period of greater than six months since the termination of the traumatic event has occurred” (Utzon-Frank et al., 2014). This condition is most often observed in soldiers that have experienced first-hand the traumatic and horrifying events of war. According to the Nebraska Department of Veteran 's Affairs, “About 30 percent of the men and women who have spent time in war zones experience PTSD” (“What is PTSD”,2007). However clients that have been exposed to military service or combat are not the only people effected by this condition. According to an article written by Ozer and Weis, somewhere between 5-10% of Americans have suffered from PTSD during their lifetime. (Ozer & Weis, Aug 2004). Many factors, such as physical assault, sexual assault, child abuse and exposure to traumatic events are all noted as influencing factors of this disorder. People who were exposed to ongoing events such as physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect or natural disaster will often develop symptoms of PTSD. Although it is not always the case, Foa & Riggs (1995) argue that many times victims of assault will a show symptoms and effects of PTSD. The issue of

The trauma history screen (THS) is a self-report measure used to provide a brief and easy way to report individuals experience with events of high levels of stress. It assesses exposure of high magnitude stressors (HMS) and persisting posttraumatic distress (PPD) events. It also helps to identify events with significant and persisting posttraumatic stress disorder. When compared to other long and complex testing measures, the THS allows for a brief and easy measure to a stressful situation (Carlson et al., 2011). It provides 14 events that the individual may have experienced and asks them to click “yes” or “no.” If the participant reports that they have experienced an event, they are asked to report the number of times it has happened to them.