The Perceptual Dichotomy Between Science And Culture

Smedley, Audrey, and Brian D. Smedley. "Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race." American Psychologist 60.1 (2005): 16-26. JSTOR. Web. 23 July

The meaning, significance, and definition of race have been debated for centuries. Historical race concepts have varied across time and cultures, creating scientific, social, and political controversy. Of course, today’s definition varies from the scientific racism of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that justified slavery and later, Jim Crow laws in the early twentieth. It is also different from the genetic inferiority argument that was present at the wake of the civil rights movement. However, despite the constantly shifting concepts, there seems to be one constant that has provided a foundation for ideas towards race: race is a matter of visually observable attributes such as skin color, facial features, and other self-evident

The concept of race and racism is considered a modern invention. According to Audrey Smedley in her article; “I argue that race was institutionalized beginning in the 18th century as a worldview, a set of culturally created attitudes and beliefs about human group differences.” There is evidence of dislike for peoples of different backgrounds before this time, but those differences were usually sparked by differences in religion. In ancient times populations worshiped more specific gods, and were fearful of other gods and the effects they could have on them. If one goes back further in time the record can not show racism but one must consider it as a possibility as prehistoric populations came

A relatively recent topic, meaning in the last one hundred year, within society is the concept of race and if it is biologically true, this meaning that evidence suggests a biological reason behind the different categories of race that are independent from social, economical, or personal views. This type of discussion can raise many concerns, questioning the possible social constructs revolving around race and its reason for being used in society today.

A study of race has changed over centuries. Creating race was originally for anthropological purpose but it became biological, scientific, and political which started segregating certain human groups from another from the mid-18th century until now. Scientists have gone through studies to show us how different each human groups are. Because science is objective and believed to be trustworthy resources, we accept what science tells us without being skeptical. When going against what science has already proven, it is a long process to approve of the theory that completely breaks the previous theory. Therefore, once scientifically proven ideas are established, whether or not these ideas might become wrong in the future, they will remain in public

J. Rushton argues that the stereotypical racial divisions are not only an accurate taxonomy of society but also serves as a key divider of human species into a hierarchical community (Rushton, 41). It was mostly during the 19th through 20th centuries that race was widely known as a biological construct, and this was often referred to as biological realism (Andreasen, 653). In today’s time theorists, such as Franz Boas (Boasianism) and Stuart Hall, argue to abolish racial segregation due to biological standards, rather they see race as a discursive and social construct. Templeton said during a panel discussion on National Public Television’s “Race: The Power of an Allusion“ that there are not enough genetic differences between groups of people to say that there are sub lineages (races) of humans…There is more and more hard generic evidence that all of humanity has evolved as a single unit…”(Fitzpatrick) This idea of race being a social construct has gained great notoriety among prestige theorists of our modern time. Brown writes that genetic elasticity proves that there are no specific traits distinct to one group (race), that throughout history the different traits have been embedded into our genetics through generations and have been far too intermixed to define specific races (Brown,

Due to the way natural selection and evolution take place, human variation occurs outside of the static racial categories that has persisted throughout history. These categories are based on variable physical traits that give no reliable information about the group as a whole. The idea that these categories are biologically meaningful is not only false, but can be harmful as well. When racial paradigms are applied in the real world, the results are sometimes harmful. Understanding that racial categories are arbitrary in a biological sense is beneficial to society as a

For centuries, racism has become the universal epitome of culture, despite the efforts of various civilizations, such as the Western and European to combat these indifferences among people. A race is specific social group that can be differentiated through various ways, from facial features and hair textures, to social norms and habits that constitutes to that group. These differences contribute to our uniqueness and humanity. Because people can be grouped by any number of differences, Man, lead by his ignorance, perpetuated the issue once social-hierarchies began to develop, splitting society to its various groups. As a result, social disparity from one’s upbringing became the common tendency to look down, or look up at people of other

Sooner than imagined, bio/technologists might find revealing patterns of gene clusters which clearly identify: (1) the Euro/Viking; (2) Mediterranean Man/Woman; (3) Euro/Asian Hybrid; (4) Purer Mongol; (5) Hybrid/Asian; (6) Afro/Black; (7) Euro/Black; (8) Iberian; (9) Hispanic/Indian; (10) Afro/Hispanic; (11) Native Amerindian; and (12) the Aborigine. Eugenically, over the span of thousands of years these subspecies of Humankind have been tailored to live-and-love via their particular behavioral patterns, such as: (a) cultural, community, and family lifestyles; (b) choices of religious media; (c) potential effectiveness, or likely less-effectiveness, or totally ineptitude, in dealing with the socio/political demands of democratic living; (d) gradations of formal, educational proficiencies; (e) success levels operating in a free-market milieu; (f) metabolic and immunity, disease propensities; (g) crime rates; and (h) the tendency to resist (or welcome) the learning (or use) of the most effective language ever devised by Mankind, i.e. English. Accordingly, within this complex socio/anthropology of a single species, i.e. the Homo Sapien, the 19th century political stage has been set for the

An alternative theory to evolution being the start of prejudice is the idea that having an Authoritarian Personality is the cause. For example, in the article “Authoritarian Personality AJC- physiological” researchers have investigated what type of person in a democratic society is prejudice. They discovered that “where a youngster is subjected to harsh discipline and is deprived of deep affection and understanding, he grows up with a feeling of a world dominated by inexorable power” (Hanft 3). The child spends their whole life trying to be dependent on others, trying to find someone to represent their parents. This kind of emotional detachment is relevant in all aspects of a person’s life especially their attitude towards other people. Since they were deprived of emotion during their childhood, they have a difficult time feeling compassion for other people, so “he tends to lump people into categories and to label them accordingly” (Hanft 3). People with an authoritarian personality feels prejudice towards other groups because they have no way of relating to them. They make reasons in their heads for other peoples faults, in order to prove their own beliefs true. The psychological effect of having strict parents, and growing up to have an Authoritarian Personality, according to

The concept of race and the meanings associated with the term have continuously changed and evolved throughout history. Many negative connotations have been associated with the word race and these are evident as one reflects on the historical origins of the term. Commonly the term race is closely connected to the notion of ‘racism.’ Racism is a specific form of prejudice which focuses on physical variations between people. It describes the ideological belief that a person, or groups of people can be classified into ‘races’ which can be ranked in terms of superiority and inferiority (Spoonley, 1988:4). Giddens defines racism as “the attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population sharing certain physically inherited characteristics” (1997:584). This supports the idea that racism is a manner of prejudice or animosity against people who have different physical characteristics. It is in virtue of circumstances such as these that Anthropologists find it necessary to make a distinction between the concepts of race and ethnicity.

Science is uncovered origins a lot of things over the centuries and the human created much great inventions and even explored the surface of the moon; however, one question still on everyone’s mind and science may have solved one of greatest mysteries yet which is: how did homosexuality and heterosexuality evolve? Many psychologist, biologist and scientist may agree with sexual orientation is output from a combination of biological, hormonal, environmental and emotional factors and those many factors that influence to a development of human sexual orientation. However, being homosexual or bisexual is not mentally ill or abnormal in certain ways, although sexual minority is part of social problems that makes output from misinformation or prejudicial attitude. Diversity in sexual orientation has been a subject that has been seen in different perspectives by the different people (LeVay, 2010). Today there are the homosexuals, heterosexuals and bisexuals orientated people are forming a part of our society. This paper conduct an overall study of important and strong factors and provides accurate information and explanation for those who want to better understand development of sexual orientation.

Due to scientist’s interest in human genetic variation, human racial classification became a focus of scientific investigation by evolutionary biologists attempting to categorize individual humans based on presumed patterns of biological difference. Scientists had hoped to classify humans in the same way that they classified other species. These scientists attached hierarchical titles to these categorizations; they claimed that differences in skin color, physiognomy, and geography were associated with scientifically measurable differences in character, aptitude, and temperament (Smedley, 1998). However, studies supporting these claims have been unsound (Gould, 1981). Categorization of humans by racial and ethnic groups continues, as researchers must remain aware of this historical legacy of the science of heredity as the genomic era continues to develop (Bonham et al., 2005).

It has long been debated where our sexual orientation comes from, particularly whether its biological or social forces driving these behaviors. In regards to homosexuality and bisexuals, some have argued that it may be a choice that these individuals are making.(Levay 2012: 41)Some have even said it is a mental disorder that one can recover from, but there is plenty of data that says otherwise.(Levay 2012: 41)(Levay 2012: 65) I believe diverse sexual orientations develop in humans due to sex hormones during fetal life, gene influences, and other effects such as birth order influences. I’ve come to this conclusion based on the narrative provided via Dr. Simon LeVay’s book Gay Straight, and the Reason Why, and the research that has been compiled showing strong influences from a multitude or reasons. I will also be looking at a research paper by Francesca Iemmola and Andrea Camperio Ciani, who looked into genetic factors influencing sexual orientation in men. It is clear there are gender differences between men and women, and this is probably one of the strongest indicators that hormones can affect the outcome of variations in gender traits.

Various scientific theories show no existence of a homosexual gene but believe there could be certain events in a person’s life which could change their sexual orientation subconsciously. Though the society holds a vast majority, it does not mean that its beliefs are right. This is because; it does not play any major role in the life of a homosexual.