The Pros And Cons Of Incidental Learning

In a diagram created by Hall (1998), implicit memory is characterized as nonconscious, nonverbal, emotional, and procedural; whereas explicit memory is conscious, verbal and holistic. In depth, explicit memory that is conscious can be recalled intentionally. For example, trying to recall a name or phone number. In contrast, implicit memory consists of motor skills, habits, and activities that can be remembered without conscious cognitive effort, such as riding a bike or climbing a staircase. (Feldman, 2011, p.152)

While the models mentioned above are very beneficial to multicultural career counseling, a theory that can implement these models successfully is needed. The Happenstance Learning Theory clarifies that the career path of an individual cannot be predicted, but that is a part of countless planned and unplanned learning experiences that begin since birth (Krumboltz, 2009, p. 146). In career counseling, counselors use the theory to help clients engage in an active lifestyle that generates unexpected events, to remain opened and alert to new opportunities, and to benefit from on found opportunities (Krumboltz, 2009). With this theory there are a few goals that the counselor focus to contribute to the learning process of the client. The counselor helps prepare the client for the counseling process in which they should expect that unplanned and unexpected events are normal and a necessary component to learn.

Examines how language develops from infancy into adulthood. Focuses on the modularity debate of how language is organized in the brain. Some theorize that language is domain-specific in that the brain has processes dedicated to the task of language learning and comprehension. Others focus on a domain-general theory for language learning where the processes used to learn language are the same processes used in other situations such as problem solving.

The purpose of this observation was to observe how elementary students learn with a focus on conditional conditioning, operant conditioning, the social learning theory, as well as phonemes, morphemes, and syntax. The observation took place at Karaffa Elementary School on March 29, 2017 and March 30, 2017. There were 3 groups of students from the Psychology class going to observe 3 different classes at KES. The observation on this date was in Mrs. Donnelly’s classroom at around 1:00 pm. The subject that was chosen to be observed was a female who was in the 2nd grade. Both days of observation consisted of the same topic which was telling time. In the next paragraph, the description of the subject and the classroom will be discussed.

Since I was born, I have been learning languages consciously and unconsciously without asking why. S.I. Hayakawa and Alan R. Hayakawa‘s Language in Thought and Action remind me the goal of the study of language – to learn to think more clearly, to speak and to write more effectively, and to listen and to read with greater understanding.

Behaviourists believe that learning a language is no different from learning anything else. It becomes a habit by the stimulus-response-reinforcement-repetition process (Cook, 2001). The behaviourists also claim that we learn by imitation and by association (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). However, psycholinguists argue that imitation is not enough because it is not only the mechanical repetition but also natural exposure that children acquire language (Cook, 2001).

(2001) Intentional and incidental second language vocabulary learning: a reappraisal of elaboration, rehearsal and automaticity. In Cognition and Second Language Instruction (ed. P. Robinson), pp. 258–286. Cam-bridge University Press, Cambridge,

Kahneman’s theory of two systems develops the understanding of how the human brain functions in our daily lives. Priming–exposure to a stimulus influences your responses to a later stimulus–is a major factor in how the way people think differs. Events that have occurred in the past can change the way people perceive a word or a situation given. A Very familiar example of priming, and is also mentioned in this book is the fill-in-the-blank experiment. The scientist provides the word, “S _ _ P” to the subjects. If the subject is naturally or influenced to image a restaurant, they would say, “Soup.” However, if the subject is thinking of cleaning or bath, then they would answer,

Many popular theories of second language acquisition have been analyzed throughout history. The socialization of L2 learners, their present emotional state that is present at the time of acquisition, as well as the comprehensible input and output with the use of scaffolding play a major role in second language acquisition. Kirsten Hummel states, “The one most effective way to increase L2 competence was by exposure to ‘comprehensible input’.” (Hummel, 2014, p. 73) Let us also not forget the importance of written expression as well as reading comprehension with these L2 learners. Each plays a role in language development. However, I believe that to acquire language one must use a variety of techniques that work together to create a balance within the learning environment. Furthermore, all L2 learners acquire language differently and so using a variety of resources that are based on the ability of each student is neccesary. There are many theories that have been developed by highly qualified experts in the field of linguistics. However, I will address those areas that I agree with as I present my personal theories on second language acquisition.

The second study consisted of the same conditions as the first but with the added experimenter priming children to perform the action associated with each object. The researchers’ findings support the idea that young children use a plethora of pragmatic cues to figure out an adult’s semantic intentions. The results of this study demonstrated that under the context of the experiment, children could learn novel names for objects solely based on pragmatic cues. These data suggest that not only are social-pragmatic cues important for word learning, but also that these same cues can easily override the supposed existence of the whole-object constraint. The researchers also argue that the existence of the object-bias may actually be a result of pragmatics. (Nameera Akhtar & Michael Tomasello, 1995). This could be the case because if an infant is born into a culture that consists of adults constantly pointing to objects and naming them, then it is very possible that the whole-object constraint is a result of social-pragmatic cues from

Although Roger’s experiential learning theory has provided many examples of advantages, there are some limitations that follow in his outlined theory. When discussing the implications of experiential learning, we often wonder what the full meaning represents. “The main problem about experience, a problem which precedes questions about how we can learn best from experience, lies in a double unsaid: a silence about the implication of experience in language and a silence about the implication of experiential learning in discourse” (Boud, Cohen & Walker, 1993, p. 169). This author explains that through the very subconscious thoughts, we often approach events believing that they have to acquire a particular meaning. Sometimes

The first area of difference between first (L1) and second (L2) language learning is input – specifically the quality and quantity of input. It is the idea of the "connectionist model that implies... (that the) language learning process depends on the input frequency and regularity" (5).. It is here where one finds the greatest difference between L1 and L2 acquisition. The quantity of exposure to a target language a child gets is immense compared to the amount an adult receives. A child hears the language all day everyday, whereas an adult learner may only hear the target language in the classroom – which could be as little as three hours a week. Even if one looks at an adult in a total submersion situation the quantity is still less because the amount of one on one interaction that a child gets for example with a parent or other caregiver is still much greater then the adult is receiving.

Linguistics has impacted cognitive psychology as the quest to understand language acquisition and the structure of language itself is undertaken. Linguistics is a complex and multifaceted; it includes language structural patterns and language development (Barsalou, 2005). The process of language development is complicated and dense, as the study of language is examined; the role of cognition is inherently examined and analyzed. Sternberg (2006) also explores language as an innate process and presents the idea that humans are born ready for language as a biological and cognitive process.

In the reading Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development by David Kolb (1984), he proposed that learning is a cycle process in which individuals learn through their own experiences in life. This notion of the learning cycle in which he was influenced by the ideas of three other theorists (Piaget, Dewey, and Lewinian) called it Experiential Learning Theory. Kolb’s theory was based on how people learned by imputing information and processing the information. Within this two abilities, there are four steps in which Kolb’s believe the learning process occurs. The first one he calls “concrete experience”, in which one actually does the learning right then and now. The second one is “reflective observation” when the learner thinks about what they did as a reflection of the experience. The next step is the “abstract conceptualization”, where the learner makes a generalization of the experience. The last step is “active experimentation”, where the learner puts to practice his/her understanding and adapts to it. The learner does this by taking all the first three steps of the learning cycle and seeing the results (pg. 30). Learning is a process in which individuals learn through trial and error. This process can then be reused with our prior experience to strengthen the outcome of our first experience. It is shaped as a cycle in the way we process information cognitively. This is how I understood of the reading on Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory.

How we teach language should be based on how people learn language.   Do we learn language the way we learn everything?  Or is there some special way our brains learn language?  Today we will talk about some of the hypotheses which have been suggested for how people learn (in general) and learn language (in particular).