The Significance Of SERCA Organisms In Mammalian Cells

In the Summer of 2015 I had the opportunity of accomplishing my own research project. With the help of my graduate student, I led us to better understand the neural pathway

2010). The neuroinflammation is an early, non-specific immune reaction to tissue damage or pathogen invasion (Lee et al. 2010). Inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS) is characterized by increased glial activation, pro-inflammatory cytokine concentration, blood-brain-barrier permeability, and leukocyte invasion (Lee et al. 2010). Microglia are cells that support and protect neuronal functions (Lee at al. 2010). They act as the first and main form of active immune defense that orchestrate the endogenous immune response of the Central Nervous System. The microglia play a central role in the cellular response to pathological lesions such as Aβ. Aβ can attract and activate microglia, leading to clustering of microglia around Aβ deposits sites in the brain (Lee et al. 2010). Even though microglia have neuroprotective functions, neurotoxic mechanisms which involves continuous activation of microglia and toxic factors are released by microglia, which may lead to neuroinflammation (Lee et al. 2010). Astrocytes (star-shaped glial cells) are the most abundant cells in the brain and are located in the brain and spinal. Astrocytes have various functions such as: biochemical support of endothelial cells of the BBB, supplying nutrients to the nervous tissue, maintenance of extracellular ion balance, and healing the brain and spinal cord following traumatic injury (Lee et al., 2010). Chemokines are released by astrocytes which attract microglia and they further express proinflammatory products, thus increasing neuronal damage in the pathogenesis of AD (Lee et al., 2010). Astrocytes play a critical role in Aß clearance and degradation, and they also provide trophic support to neurons forming a protective barrier between Aß deposits and neurons (Wyss-Coray et al., 2003). Neurons contribute to the production of

Molecular Cell Biology, 7th Edition, 2013, Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Bretscher. Ploegh, Amon, and Scott. W.H. Freeman and Company (ISBN-13: 978-1-4292-3413-9)

The oligonucleotide antisense matches complementary to the region 107–128 of the human Smad7 mRNA sequence, and its

On February 8, 1951 a sample of cancerous cervical tissue was taken from Henrietta Lacks, a patient at John Hopkins Hospital who would later die from an aggressive strain of cervical cancer on October 4, 1951. The sample was taken during her first radium treatment without her knowledge by Doctor Howard W. Jones, and sent to the cell culture lab where George and Margret Gey would grow her cells. The sample was taken without consent; this calls the ethics of the hospital, and doctors into question. The Lacks family knew little of what Henrietta’s cells would later go onto do or how they could be immortal. Doctors, scientist and the media treated the Lacks family poorly. Although the HeLa cells would create the path to some of the greatest advances

the degeneration of brain tissue in mammals. A form of proteins that have undergone alteration form

Proteins are primarily considered to have one primary function to serve its role in an organism, however studies have observed to have multiple functioning proteins known as moonlighting proteins (Khan et al. 2014). Moonlighting proteins along with primary functions, have secondary functions that are not related to the primary function and does not correlate to the primary or other functions (Khan et al. 2014). The multifunctional proteins play essential roles in carrying out biochemical functions which aids in the cell growth but are not caused by gene fusion and multiple RNA splice variants (Amblee et al. 2015). The discovery of moonlighting proteins was first discovered by Piatigorsky and Wistow while observing crystallins (Khan et al. 2014). Crystallins, are structural proteins that are found in the eye lens that exhibit enzymatic activity to make the lens itself (Khan et al. 2014). Crystallin has a primary function to help form the lens of the eye by acting as a structural protein (Amblee et al. 2015). Besides enzymatic activity, crystallin was observed in other mammals to have secondary functions such as metabolic functions which are helpful in prokaryotic (Khan et al 2014). Most moonlighting proteins are characterized as cytosolic enzymes and chaperons, or in other words helping proteins (Amblee et al 2015). The multifunctional proteins or moonlighting proteins can also be identified as receptors, channel proteins and ribosomal proteins (Khan et al. 2014). Due to the

Generally, two surface molecules including complement receptor type 3 (CR3) and galactose-specific lectin MAC-2 are involved in Wallerian degeneration process and consequently the peripheral nerve regeneration. However, injury to CNS is not followed by extensive regeneration. It is limited by the inhibitory influences of the glial and extracellular environment. The environment within the CNS, especially following trauma, counteracts the repair of myelin and neurons. Growth factors are not expressed or re-expressed; for instance, the extracellular matrix is free of laminin, so glial scars rapidly form and produce factors that inhibit re-myelination and axon repair. The axons themselves also lose the potential for growth with age due to a decrease in the expression of

Every person and thing in this world is affected by Henrietta Lacks’s cells called HeLa cells. All of the cells originated from Henrietta’s cervix where a cell biologist named Gey took a sample of Henrietta's tumor without her consent. When Gey’s assistant, Mary Kubicek, is given the cells, she believes them to be just like any other cells and doesn't wish to go into deeper examination. Once she comes back to her cubicle the next day to see that the cells have multiplied in great amounts, she is astonished. These cells are used for anything and everything such as curing diseases and creating vaccines. Not only are they used for diseases and vaccines, but they are also used for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The cells are used to test the safety

This gene provides information for making a protein that regulates the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway. The TGF-β pathway regulates many processes, including cell growth and proliferation, the process by which cells mature to carry out special functions (differentiation), cell motility, and apoptosis. By attaching to certain proteins , the SKI protein blocks TGF-β signaling. The SKI protein is found in many cell types allover the body and appears to have a role in the development of many tissues, including the skull, other bones, skin, and brain.

Before the HeLa cell line, scientists struggled to keep human cells alive for more than a couple days, which was necessary for their research of how human cells function, disease develop, and testing vaccines and treatments. In 1951, the HeLa cell was discovered by Dr. George Gey, a scientist at John Hopkins University, which proved to be an immortal cell line that has the ability to regenerate and create endless copies of the original cells. Unlike other cells that tend to die after about 50 divisions the HeLa cells have the ability to continuously keep growing. Dr.Gey had been searching to find an immortal cell line, when he came across the tumors of a patient with cervical cancer named Henrietta Lacks. Henrietta Lacks was a black woman from

A relatively large neocortex differentiates mammals from other most other animals (Amthor). The neocortex allows higher cognition, such as data processing, voluntary movement, and language (Lui et al. 18). Cognitive activities such as these are critical for human life and thus proper neocortex development is important. The development involves the formation of six horizontal neuronal layers, which all differ in function and connection. The differences between layers comes mainly from unique axon projections of the excitatory projection neurons located in each layer. Upper layers (L1 through L3) are involved in data processing and have inter-hemisphere projections. Lower Layers (L5-L6) are involved in voluntary motor function and have subcortical connections. Layer 4 tends to have

Glial cells are the most numerous cells in the brain, outnumbering neurons nearly 3:1, although smaller and some lacking axonal and dendritic projections. Once thought to play a subpar role to neurons, glial cells are now recognized as responsible for much greater functions. There are many types of glial cells, including: oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath in the CNS, by wrapping themselves around the axons of neurons. Their PNS counterpart, Schwann cells, are also considered glial cells. This sheath insulates the axon and increases the speed of transmission, analogous to the coating on electrical wires. Microglia are considered to be “immune system-like”; removing viruses, fungi, and other wastes that are present. Astrocytes, however, are considered to be the most prominent. Their functions span throughout the brain, including, but not limited to: the synchronization of axonal transmission via G-protein-coupled receptors, blood flow regulation via the dilation of blood vessels, and the performance of reactive gliosis in conjunction with microglia. Both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes develop from neuroepithelial cells. Other types of glial cells include Radial glia, which direct immature neuron migration during development.

I have elected to pursue research in the field of neuroscience because I relish the approach of logical thinking to satisfy the curiosity of knowing things about me and the world around me. Neuroscience is a fascinating area with a limitless possibility of understanding and uncovering to resolve so many unanswered and unimagined questions. Although, in recent years, a large number of breakthroughs research have been done in the area of neuroscience, still, there is a lot more to discover and untangle in this area. Such an enormous amount of research work in this area has led open to the advancement in the diagnosis and therapeutic approaches to several neurological disorders and cancer such as glioma. Therefore, I decided

Primary cortical mixed neuron-astroglia cultures were prepared from embryonic day 18 Sprague–Dawley rat fetuses and plated on poly-L-lysine coated 12-well plates (Erie Scientific, Portsmouth, NH, USA). Cells were allowed to grow in an atmosphere of 10% CO2 at 37°C for 3 days and then treated with 1 mM 4-amino-6-hydrazino-7-D-ribofuranosyl-7H-pyrrolo (2,3-D)-pyrimidine-5-carboxamide (ARC) for 2 days. The ARC was removed, and fresh 10% plasma-derived horse serum (PDHS) in DMEM was added, after which the cells were grown for an additional 10 to 14 days in 12-well plates {Yang:2014cx}. For cytotoxic challenges, in addition to untreated controls, the following conditions were used: calcium ionophore A23187 (25 μM; Sigma, St Louis, MO, USA) as a