To What Extent Can Cognitive Development Be Understood in Terms of the Specialization of Function in Specific Structures of the Brain?

Since the early 1900’s psychologists have developed theories about how the human brain develops and how humans learn. Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood (Wells, 2011). There are many factors that play vital roles in how we learn, some of which are intelligence, reasoning and memory.

Cognitive development is the way a child sees, thinks and gains understanding of the world through interaction, influence, learned and genetic factors. There are four areas of intelligence and child brain development. They are: biological approaches to intelligence, cognitive succession of stages, knowledge, and intellectual ability.

Many advances in cognitive development are seen throughout early childhood. Both Piaget and Vygotsky contribute theories which attempt to explain the background and development of these

At the centre of Piaget's theory is the principle that cognitive development occurs in a series of four distinct, universal stages, each characterized by increasingly sophisticated and

Cognitive development is very important throughout the stages of life. It is very important to how we function and think as individuals. In order to be successful academically and physically, we as human beings have to crawl before we can walk. So it is a step by step process that starts from prenatal development.

The genome is the complete set of an individual’s inheritable traits or it’s DNA. As a fetus develops, signals are received that cause incremental change in the gene expression patterns. The DNA in our bodies is wrapped around proteins called histone. The histone and DNA are covered in chemical tags. This structure is called an epigenome. The epigenome shapes the structure of the genome. Epigenetic marks are modifications of DNA and histones. The epigenome tightly wraps inactive genes and allows active genes to be more easily accessible. The epigenome adjusts specific genes in response to our changing environment. The programming of neurons through epigenetic mechanisms is critical in neural development. A type of cellular memory is formed when those changes occur. These are epigenetic tags. Each tag records the cell’s experiences on the DNA. This is to help stabilize gene expression. Over time, and with thousands of different experiences, an epigenetic profile forms for each cell type. Each one is unique, with a distinct identity and a specialized function. A flexible epigenome allows us to adjust and learn from our mistakes. The epigenome responds to signals. These signals come from a variety of places. From fetal development to old age, our epigenome is effected by our environmental factors.

However, the mind compromises of “hundreds or thousands” of “genetically specified” modules that ancestors encountered diversity array of adaptive problems, each adaptive problem “domain” needs its own “domain specific” solution. No single “domain-general” psychological mechanism could successfully solve various adaptive problems. Thus, a psychological mechanism evolved for each distinct adaptive problem ancestors faced. Cosmides and Tooby supports this argument ‘‘a woman who

of development, how we experience the world plays a role in our brain development. In recent

The human brain consists of billions of neurons (nerve cells) and develops rapidly during early childhood. These nerve cells send electrochemical signals to each other to form the brains essential functions of language, communication, learning, memory, movement, thinking, and problem-solving. This essay will explore the changes in children’s behaviour from early childhood to adolescence as the brain develops.

interaction,” are now attributed to the activation and expression of families of programed genes which synchronously turn on and off during infancy, thereby controlling the transient enhanced expression of enzymes of biosynthetic pathways which allow for growth in particular brain regions. In light of the established principles that early postnatal development represents an experiential shaping of genetic potential, a new

Part 1: Explain what is meant by plasticity in the context of neural development and briefly describe how it occurs as a lifelong process.

What has got a lot of people excited, though, is the idea that epigenetic switches might be transmitted down the generations. Some see this as contrary to Darwinism, since it would permit characteristics acquired during an organism’s lifetime to be passed on to its offspring, as suggested by a rival theory of evolution put forward by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. This is an exaggeration. The DNA sequence itself is not being permanently altered. Even those epigenetic changes that are inherited seem to be subsequently reversible. But the idea that acquired characteristics can be inherited at all is still an important and novel one, and a worrying example of the phenomenon has been published this week in BioMed Central Medicine.

This study clearly reveals that mutations can be beneficial and something as simple as an alteration in three base pairs can be responsible for an extremely different neurological outcome in species. Another example of a beneficial mutation was found by the Scripps Research Institute. They discovered that an extra copy of the brain development gene SRGAP2, which appeared 2.5 million years ago in human ancestors, gave maturing neurons more time to migrate and develop greater connections during gestational periods10. This helped the brain become bigger and in addition, helped it form more synapses between neurons, producing biological fitness. According to Darwin’s theory of natural selection, the species with traits that allow them to thrive in the environment are more likely to survive and succeed and produce offspring. The development of an intelligent brain with many synapses was helpful for foraging behaviours in humans and to help them learn and remember the best times and places to pick

Studies have shown that our ancestors experience’s may leave a mark on our genes. Geneticists were surprised to find that epigenetic change could be passed down from parent to child. A study from Randy Jirtle of Duke University showed that when female mice are fed a diet rich in methyl groups, the fur pigment of subsequent offspring is permanently altered without changing the DNA. Madrid, Szyf and Meaney considered a hypothesis: “If diet and chemicals can cause epigenetic changes, could certain experiences — child neglect, drug abuse or other severe stresses — also set off epigenetic changes to the DNA inside the neurons of a person’s brain?” This study states that the biology of DNA will stay the same how ever psychological and behavioral tendencies are inherited.

Brain development in the first two years is the most important and critical. Maria Montessori referred to this time as of the "absorbent mind" Early brain development is the frame work for the road ahead. When and how the brain develops in the first two years will play a critical role into adulthood. At birth, the brain is the only incomplete organ. The brain will continue to grow through childhood and adolescents.