Traumatic Brain Inflammation

Multiple sclerosis (MS) involves an autoimmune process that develops when a previous viral insult to the nervous system has occurred in a genetically susceptible individual. B lymphocytes, plasma cells, and activated T cells, along with proinflammatory cytokines, cause inflammation, oligodendrocyte injury and demyelination. Early inflammation and demyelination lead to irreversible axonal

Recently, former NFL players have appealed a $1 billion plan to address concussions because it excludes the key brain disease that has commonly been associated with football known as chronic traumatic encephalopathy. This is a type of brain decay that has been found in dozens of past football players after they died. Critics of the NFL's plan have insisted that the deal includes future payments for encephalopathy.

Homemade explosives are the arsenals of choice by the terrorists not just around the world but also in their own backyards as seen in the recent war in Iraq and Afghanistan. Thanks to the hard work of our Department of Defense, many of our soldiers are surviving these blasts due to improvements made to their uniforms and armor. Even though, we have been able to quickly identify and treat their visible injuries; we tend to overlook the more traumatic brain injuries and disorder these soldiers face when they return home to their families. However, the U.S. department of Defense and Veterans Health Administration have raised the awareness of promptly identifying the disabling symptoms of these injuries that may negatively affect the quality of life of our brothers and sisters that sacrifice their lives for our freedom. PTSD is a complicated disorder that affects veterans in general. The department of Veterans Affairs is devoted to provide the best care for our veterans that are diagnosed with this terrible disorder.

War comes with many injuries some physical and some invisible more often in this society the invisible wounds could take a short time to show or an extended time. Along the path another war is fought in the homes while the invisible injuries are taking their tole on the individual many more casualties come from the act of war and they did not even deploy. Other victims of war include citizens of war torn countries, who are often affected both psychologically as well as physically. Mother and fathers sent to war, away from their children unable to form a relationship. Marriages broken apart, The man left alone trying to cope with his own injuries. These things change a man, it changes his outlook on life making it challenging to complete everyday

After many studies, researchers have found that a tremendous amount of football players will develop a brain disease known as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). This disease is found mostly in athletes who have encountered direct contact to the head. Most of the time, football players will be afflicted with CTE after receiving multiple hits on or near the helmet. Over time, these hits start to affect players in a negative way causing brain trauma, later resulting in CTE. Consequently, CTE has symptoms that are not pleasant and could change players and their families lives forever; some of the symptoms include mood swings and memory loss. CTE also leads to other health afflictions; from the article, Anne McDonnell states, “Brain injuries

Traumatic brain injuries (T.B.I.) can happen when people are injured during and after military service. They must find ways to cope with the symptoms and cope with separation from the military. People will use illicit drugs, tobacco, alcohol, and misuse prescription drugs as a mechanism and the objective of this study is to understand the impact of TBI and military service on substance use norms of soldiers and their partners. These norms are important in neuroscience because they create problems in a person’s brain and life. Environmental factors such as being in the military puts people at risk for physical and mental damage. A person can receive damage if they are struck in the head or are affected by a nearby explosion. TBI symptoms will appear after a few days, weeks, or months depending on how severe the injury is. If couples have high approval of these norms, there can be possible long-term effects on the individual.

Thesis Statement: Recent scientific research has exposed a direct connection between repeated head trauma and the game of football leading to the diagnosis of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Subsequently, I predict the competitiveness of the National Football League (NFL) will decrease as a result of parents transitioning youth football players to other less physical sports.

Will the Army Soldier be able to resume a normal life along with their military career?

1.5 million people in the United State of America have a traumatic brain disorder (TBI). These disorders have symptoms of memory dysfunction, depression and anxiety; Dr. Byrnes and her team at the Uniformed Services University have examined mouse models to find the cellular mechanisms for these symptoms.

Traumatic brain injury or TBI happens when a bump, blow, jolt, or other head injury causes damage to the brain. Every year, millions of people suffer from brain injuries. More than half are bad enough that people have to go to the hospital. The worse injuries can lead to permanent brain damage or even death. Half of all TBIs are from motor vehicle accidents. Most common are also from sports, like boxing and football.

Mild Traumatic Brain Injuries (MTBI) or Concussions as they are most commonly known, can cause serious damage on the effected athletes brain resulting in the athlete suffering short-term effects (e.g. headache), long-term effects (e.g. memory loss) or both depending on the severity of force inflicted to the skull.

Microglia are resident immune cells in the CNS, separated from many blood-borne molecules by the BBB. However, evidence suggests that BBB endothelial cells either act as transporters of hormones and cytokines across the BBB or as classic receptor sites, possibly reacting to signals in the blood by secreting other signals into the CNS.8 By these mechanisms, microglia can become activated in response to inflammatory stimulation such as the cytokines and hormones that cross the BBB.9 Also, metabolic disease frequently leads to compromise of the BBB, providing greater access for circulating molecules to the CNS. It is not clear whether metabolic disease causes microglia to weaken the BBB, or whether the BBB is weakened first, with microglia then

At adult normal physiological condition, microglial display surveillance or so-called ‘resting’ phenotypes gauged by small cell body with extensively ramifying processes that actively surveying the CNS microenvironment. In this steady state, the turnover processes is primarily confined and well-maintained through local self-renewal of the long-lived resident microglial. Anomalies in the CNS such as infections, tissues damage, and accumulation of abnormal protein or biochemical can trigger microglial activation and in turn cause inflammation in CNS. Different from steady state, inflammatory condition may have disrupted the integrity of blood brain barrier and allowed recruitment of circulating myeloid cells and promotes their differentiation into microglial with more potent inflammatory properties and resulting heterogeneity of microglial . Activated microglial rapidly proliferate undergo phenotypic transition where they will exit from the ‘resting’ or ‘surveying’ form and mounted inflammatory effectors functions. Evidences showed that activated microglial capable of upregulated its phagocytose properties and secrete of inflammatory mediators chemokines, cytokines, nitrite, reactive oxygen species, and free radicals to execute repair

Glial cells are the most numerous cells in the brain, outnumbering neurons nearly 3:1, although smaller and some lacking axonal and dendritic projections. Once thought to play a subpar role to neurons, glial cells are now recognized as responsible for much greater functions. There are many types of glial cells, including: oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath in the CNS, by wrapping themselves around the axons of neurons. Their PNS counterpart, Schwann cells, are also considered glial cells. This sheath insulates the axon and increases the speed of transmission, analogous to the coating on electrical wires. Microglia are considered to be “immune system-like”; removing viruses, fungi, and other wastes that are present. Astrocytes, however, are considered to be the most prominent. Their functions span throughout the brain, including, but not limited to: the synchronization of axonal transmission via G-protein-coupled receptors, blood flow regulation via the dilation of blood vessels, and the performance of reactive gliosis in conjunction with microglia. Both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes develop from neuroepithelial cells. Other types of glial cells include Radial glia, which direct immature neuron migration during development.

Microglia serve as the resident innate immune cells of the brain parenchyma which play different roles in adult and developing CNS ranging from immunological surveillance to neurological preservation.17,18 Although microglia are the primary cells involved in innate immunity in the CNS, astrocytes and neurons also take part in immune response.19 Microglia were firstly identified as rod-shaped nucleus containing cells in the brain over one-hundred years ago and were named Staebchenzellen.20 Microglia with the capacity for self-renewal and long-living originate from myeloid progenitors within the yolk sac and migrate to the developing CNS during early embryogenesis. They are different from the cells derived from the bone marrow by haematopoiesis and from the blood circulating cells.21,22 These phagocytes make up approximately 10% of heterogeneous cell population in CNS and trigger both innate and adaptive immunities in neuroinflammation.12,13