Trial By Fire : The Forging Of Modern Physics

The general and widespread acceptance of Sir Isaac Newton’s models and laws may often be taken for granted, but this has not always been so. Throughout history, scientists and philosophers have built on each other’s theories to create improved and often revolutionary models. Although Newton was neither the first nor the last to bring major innovations to society, he was one of the most notable ones; many of his contributions are still in use today. With the formulation of his laws of motion, Sir Isaac Newton contributed to the downfall of Aristotelianism and provided a universal quantitative system for approximating and explaining a wide range of phenomena of space and the physics of motion, revolutionizing the study and understanding

The coffeehouses allowed both students and scientists to discuss their ideas and achievements in a relaxed environment. This was what members of the Royal Society, Britain’s scientific institution, enjoyed so much about them. Wren, the founder, and Hooke, a member, talked about the behaviour of springs with each other. Hooke also shared his ideas about medical remedies with other members at the coffeehouses. Most prominent, though, was Wren, Hooke and Halley’s (another member of the Royal Society) discussion on the theory of gravity, which then progressed to whether or not elliptical shapes of planetary orbits were consistent with gravitational force that diminished with the inverse square of distance. The three men never agreed on an answer. Which was why, a few months later when Wren met Isaac Newton in Cambridge, he asked the famous scientist the very same question they had debated. Newton said that yes, an inverse-square law of gravity would give rise to elliptical orbits, although he could not confirm it because he had no proof. That same year, Newton, having become determine to prove this theory, sent Halley a paper with the proof he had discovered. Halley went on to publish one of history’s greatest books of science called “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.” So, were it not for coffeehouses, Wren, Hooke and Halley may never have discussed this topic, leading to one of the world’s most important scientific discoveries.

Newton’s writings have had a profound effect on modern day science, astronomy, physics, as well as scientific reason. His discoveries and laws set a foundation of universal guidelines that enabled others to conduct experiments based on their own observations, while he also explained how the natural world functioned. In his ‘Principia’ he listed his set of four rules of scientific reasoning. The four rules include: 1) we are to admit no more causes of natural things such as both true and sufficient to explain their experiences. 2) The same natural effects must be assigned to the same causes. 3) Qualities of bodies are to be esteemed as universal. 4) Propositions deduced from observation of phenomena contradict them (wolframresearch). This method of reasoning set the framework for the quest of answers during the Enlightenment. Today his four laws are known as the scientific

Finally, during the European enlightenment, men like Fermat, Pascal, and Isaac Barrow further pursued the emerging new field developing the concept of the derivative. Barrow even offered the first proof of the fundamental theorem of calculus linking the concepts of differentiation and integration; however, it was one of Barrow’s young students, Isaac Newton who would make the next big splash in the creation of the art of calculus.

Leibniz and Newton pulled these ideas together into a coherent whole and they are usually credited with the independent and nearly simultaneous invention of calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics and Leibniz developed much of the notation used in calculus today; he often spent days determining appropriate symbols for concepts. The basic insight that both Newton and Leibniz had was the fundamental theorem of calculus.

One of the most prolific eras in our world’s history is the Scientific Revolution. During this time men began to think outside the realm of possibility and delved themselves deep into the exciting unknown world of science. The innovative minds of these people churned out inventions like gunpowder and the printing press, as well as, inventive new ways of thinking like the scientific method. Aside from the inventors and innovators, there were also the publicists and writers without whom no one would know or understand the new ideas of the time. One such person was Margaret Cavendish who was born and raised in England. She received the same education that a lady during her time did. However, due to her husband, Sir Charles Cavendish, she was exposed to the world of science. The subject intrigued her so much that she ended up publishing her own theory on atoms. Though her atomic theory contains many scientific Renaissance ideals, it is still seen as a major contribution of thought during the Scientific Revolution.

Prior to Galileo’s time, the Greek and medieval mind, science was a kind of formalism, a means of coordinating data, which had no bearing on the ultimate reality of things. The point was to give order to complicated data, and all that mattered was the hypothesis that was simplest to understand and most convenient. Astronomy and mathematics were regarded as the playthings of intellectuals. They were accounted as having neither philosophical nor theological relevance. There was genuine puzzlement among Churchmen that they had to get involved in a quarrel over planetary orbits.

Leonhard Euler, professor of physics, has made a striking impact in not only mathematics, but in rather wide variety of departments stretching as far as basic algebra and geometry to the complexity of lunar motion and the calculation of planetary orbits. Even as a child Euler was distinguished for his phenomenal memory; attending the University of Basel at the age 13, hoped to follow in his father's footsteps in becoming a minister. Ultimately this is where his abilities in mathematics and science really began to shine. Of course in the long run he is face to face with some obstacles that he unfortunately can't overcome ,but still finds a way to do the things he loves and thus making him one of the many famous mathematicians , astronomers and physicist known to

One of the most well known is, “To every action there is always an opposed and equal reaction”.2 These three basic theories are the most widely known theories that Newton proposed. The development of these theories founded what is now modern physics. These theories also gained Newton attention and credibility in the scientific community, which further helped spread his accomplishments.

In summer of 1609, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) pointed his revolutionary astronomical telescope to the heavens under the starry Venetian sky; his greatly important observations unveiled the mysteries of universe and would end up changing the course of scientific thought forever. Galileo lived in an age where there was much status quo, when scientists and philosophers would accept scientific and religious doctrine that had stood for hundreds, if not thousands, of years instead of challenging the accepted knowledge in favor of intellectual progress. Galileo’s scientific methods lead to significant discoveries explaining key scientific laws, such as the

Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz each claimed that they established calculus as a true branch of mathematics on their own. However, it is highly improbable that two men working independently of one another reached the same conclusions on a topic as broad as modern calculus. These claims lead the public to ask the question: “who was the great mastermind behind this now universally used branch of science?” While it is true that both men contributed in content to Calculus, the controversial belief that Leibniz plagiarized Newton’s work, changing only a few minute details and publishing his findings before Newton had a chance to publish his, is the fuel that caused this controversy to become one of the greatest mathematical disputes in history. Historical events and mathematical evidence dictate that Newton is the real father of calculus

Isaac Newton struggled with receiving the proper credit for his scientific discoveries, and was often overlooked during his time. His biggest rival was Robert Hooke, a president of the Royal Society and renowned scientist. On occasion, Newton would disagree with Hooke’s previously published ideas, for example, Newton’s claim that light was a particle. This is an example of the beginning of their rivalry. There were many cases throughout their time where Hooke would accuse Newton of publishing his ideas. An extreme example of this was when Hooke publically humiliated Newton, causing Newton to go into hiding for many years to avoid the embarrassment. Eventually, through the help of other scientists such as Halley, Newton slowly gained more credit

In order to attempt to trace the origins of the modern science that we now refer to

“I calculate the motion of heavenly bodies but not the madness of people” – Sir Isaac Newton (The Church of England Quarterly Review (1850), p. 142)

Sir Isaac Newton once said, “We build too many walls and not enough bridges.” Aside from his countless contributions to the worlds of math and science, this may be his most important quote because it is what he based his life on—building bridges of knowledge. Throughout his life he was devoted to expanding his and others knowledge past previously known realms. Often regarded of the father of calculus, Newton contributed many notable ideas and functions to the world through his creation of calculus and the various divisions of calculus. Namely, Newton built upon the works of great mathematicians before him through their use of geometry, arithmetic and algebra to create a much more complex field that could explain many more processes in