Types Of Mucosal Immunity Of Mammals : Synthesis And Transepithelial Transport Of Large Amounts Of Siga

The relationship between the human gut microbiome to health and disease is strong. Human physiology, metabolism, nutrition, and immune function are all affected by the composition of the gut. If the composition of the gut microbiome is altered in a way that any of these functions are negatively affected, this can lead to disease. The developments of the microbiome, its complexity, and its functionality in health and disease have been extensively studied. In addition, the way in which it is altered has many implications in the cause of diseases, such as bowel disease, obesity, diabetes and cancer.

IgA – antibodies that are secreted across mucus layer to prevent microbes from penetrating cell bodies

Once the infant is born, maternal antibodies are cut off and the neonate’s production of IgG rises. The maternal antibodies are metabolized faster than the infant’s production of immunoglobulin, which leaves the infant more vulnerable to infections.

Celiac disease is an autoimmune disease triggered by ingestion, of gluten-containing foods. The disease results from inappropriate T cells immune response against gliadin in genetically predisposed people. Individuals with this disorder have high levels of antibodies to a variety of antigens. The resulting immune response produces a strong inflammatory reaction that results in loss of absorptive villi from the small intestine. After the subsequent lesions are widespread, they may weaken absorption of macronutrients and micronutrients. Small bowel involvement

Cholera remains a drastically severe disease, killing hundreds of people each outbreak. When ingested, it attaches to the mucosal lining of the intestines and disrupts the normal flow of ions so that there is more sodium, chloride, and water in the intestinal lumen than normal and results in massive diarrhea. Cholera has made a global impact and been endemic in almost all parts of the world. Cholera control strongly emphasizes sanitation, clean drinking water, isolation, and careful food preparation. Two ways our body works against cholera as a self-limiting disease are sloughing cells and the secretory immunoglobulin (sIgA) antibody produced by mucus throughout our body. There are

IBD is the result of an abnormal innate repsonce to antigens in the intestinal flora, thus activating the adaptive immune repsinse; a process in which genome wide stidues have implicated several genes such as NOD2 and ATG16L1, both involved in the intracellular processing of bacterial antigens. PSC has shown similar mechanisms characterized by Th1 cytokines and structuring. However, PSC has aslo shown close association with classic autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthiritis, and others; has shown a strong association with the human leukocyte antigen(HLA) DRB1*0301 haplotype; and has shown a variety of autoantigens to neutrophils and biliary epithelial cells (BEC). (1) Thus suggesting the immunopathogenesis of PSC is complicated and may have more than one cause.

The newest microbe that scientist are beginning to learn about gives hope to those who are intolerant to gluten, mainly sufferers of Celiac Disease. Presently, this condition affects “1 in 133 otherwise healthy individuals” (Mercola). What causes some people to be more susceptible to Celiac Disease? Scientists have learned that gluten intolerance becomes present when gluten, a protein found in wheat products, passes undigested through the small intestine. The inner lining of the intestines where villi are found is destroyed and nutrients from food are no longer absorbed. Commonly, gluten malabsorption goes undiagnosed for an average of four years, which can cause cancer, autoimmune disorders,

The gram-negative bacilli were first discovered and described by Theodor Escherich, a German pediatrician in 1885. Originally named as Bacterium coli commune, the name was changed to Escherichia coli (E.coli) (Stanford T. Shulman et al., 2007). E.coli is known as the most free-living organism being studied. More than 700 E.coli serotypes have been discovered. Their “O” antigen (somatic), and “H” antigen (flagellar) and “K” antigen (capsular) distinguish the different E.coli serotypes. E.coli is commensal bacterial species of the mammalian colon. The bacterium typically colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of an infant within a few hours of life. It is known that E.coli and its human host-derived a mutual benefit that they coexist in good health. Most of E.coli strains are harmless except in immunocompromised hosts, or when gastrointestinal barriers are violated that even non-pathogenic strains can cause disease. Nevertheless, there are certain serotypes that may cause disease in humans and animals. Pathogenic E.coli can be divided into six recognized diarrheagenic categories: enteropathogenic E.coli (EPEC), Shiga toxin-producing E.coli (STEC), enterotoxigenic E.coli (ETEC), enteroaggregative E.coli (EAEC), enteroinvasive E.coli (EIEC) and diffusely adherent E.coli (DAEC) (James B. Kaper et al., 2004). E.coli caused a major health problem in developing countries such as China and Korea. It has been found to be associated with most gastrointestinal diseases in

RASAL3, SASH3, PTPRC, and INPP5D. These genes are termed “hub genes” due to the high

Several individuals suffering from abdominal discomfort are often content remedied only short-term for conditions other than an accurate diagnosis of celiac disease (CD). A current account from Intestinal Microbiota and Celiac Disease: Cause, Consequence or Co-Evolution? states, “Celiac disease (CD) is a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory disease affecting the small bowel, triggered by gluten ingestion in genetically susceptible individuals” (Cenit, Olivares, Codoñer-Franch, & Sanz, 2015). This paper will discuss the history, symptoms, and testing of celiac disease. Furthermore, this paper discusses the effects this disease has on the small intestine, and how a diagnosis and dietary modifications can establish healthy living. Illustrated

Overall Scientific premise: Inflammatory bowel disorder (IBD) affects an estimated 1-1.3 million people in the US alone, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Although immune intolerance in the gut is considered one of the factors driving disease progression, the origins of IBD remain unknown. Enteric infections play a major role and could potentially be an underlying cause of IBD (PMID:15256979). Staphylococcus aureus, an ESKAPE pathogen, one of the major causes of foodborne enteric infections. Nevertheless, there is a considerable knowledge gap as to how S. aureus can cause dysregulation and inflammation at enteric mucosal surfaces that could lead to IBD. Previous studies along these lines led to the

coli K1 is a key step in the infection process (polin). The intestine of healthy neonates gets colonized by commensal bacteria shortly after birth, but for some individuals this normally harmless process can lead to sepsis, due mainly to the immature immune system of the human neonate (3). The gastrointestinal tract mucosa possesses several defense mechanisms which protect the gut from microbial infection (30). The gastrointestinal barrier is composed of a monolayer of several cell types, including the structural enterocytes, Paneth cells, and goblet cells, which are involved in the secretion of mucus (14, 30,

In fish mucosal immune system is mainly associated with gut, skin and the gill; these are the main mucosal surfaces and immune barriers. Mucosal immune system is a major part that responds and protects against pathogens that enter the body via mucosal surfaces. An inductive site for mucosal immunity possesses organized mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) and local and regional draining lymph nodes (LN), while the effector sites have distinctly different histological compartments. In fish hindgut seems to play vital role in antigen uptake (Rombout et al., 1993). Absorption of macromolecules by intestinal epithelial cells and many diffusely distributed leucocytes as well as intraperitoneal lymphocytes (IELs) are described in numerous fish

The neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) plays important role in multiple functions: FcRn transports maternal (colostrum derived) IgG to the circulation of the neonate from the gut lumen, regulates transfer of IgG into milk, transfer of maternal IgG across the placenta directly into the bloodstream of the fetus during pregnancy. FcRn is also expressed in tissues such as liver, mammary gland, intestine, kidney and lung indicating its role in IgG transport at these sites [26]. Additionally, FcRn is also expressed by vascular endothelial cells, which protects circulating IgG from degradation and significantly elongates its half-life. So it may be hypothesized that the conservation and bioavailability of IgG at all stages of mammalian life can be attributed to FcRn [26,27].

Although mucin is an essential component of mucus, little is known about the evolution of mucin genes or other genes associated with the maintenance of mucosal linings, their expression patterns or what specific role mucins and associated genes play in mucosal barrier function and immunity in cnidarians (Schama et al., 2012). As a defence against infectious and external stimuli, the mucosal barrier has evolved to respond to physiological and immunological stimuli originating from diverse organisms and the environment, including ultra-violet radiation, bacteria and desiccation (Linden et al., 2008).