Use Of Cofactors For Consumer Chemicals Manufactured Using Biocatalysts Essay

The dehydration of 2-Methylcyclohexanol was completed using an acid-catalyzed dehydration reaction between 2-Methylcyclohexanol and sulfuric acid. In this acid-catalyzed dehydration reaction, the oxygen atom is first protonated, the oxonium ion is then endothermically decomposed into a carbocation and water, and finally the loss of a proton from an adjacent carbon atom forms an alkene. Due to the presence of carbocation rearrangement, three products are formed as shown below in Figure 1.

For the cell to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), plenty of oxygen is needed. Fermentation is a unique way to generate energy ATP in the form of without using any oxygen. Fermentation consists of glycolysis and a process of NAD+ generation. Glycolysis oxidizes glucose to two pyruvate molecules. The two pyruvate molecules are converted into two carbon ethanol molecules, and two carbon dioxide molecules are released. The overall net yield of fermentation are two ATP molecules and two NADH

The citric acid cycle has been described as “the hub of the metabolic wheel”. Discuss the roles of the citric acid cycle in the oxidation of various fuel molecules and the provision of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis.

The goals in this lab were to have a reaction occur with 4-methylcyclohexanol and an acid catalyst to form our product of 4-methylcyclohexene via an E1 reaction. This reaction is accomplished by removing the –OH group on 4-methylcyclohexanol via dehydration and to have a double bond form via a loss of a hydrogen on a β-Carbon.

Produced through fermentation, ethanol, is a renewable resource, diluting petrol with ethanol will increase the lifetime of fossil fuels. Amylase and maltase, biological catalysts, convert the starch (from maize or waste vegetation) into maltose first and then glucose. Anaerobic respiration of yeast, in a process called glycolysis,

Oxidation-reduction reactions can be used to stereochemically control and produce many different organic molecules. The oxidation step in this process increases the number of carbon oxygen bonds by losing a hydrogen and breaking

Then, a phosphate is added to one of the the three carbon molecules, in addition to the reduction of NAD⁺ to NADH via triosephosphate dehydrogenase. In the first ATP generating step, a phosphate is transferred form the product of the last reaction to ADP via phosphoglycerate kinase. The next step switches the position of a phosphate group to yield 2-phosphoglycerate. Enolase then catalyzes a dehydration reaction to yield phophoenolpyruvate. The last energy producing step of glycolysis transfers a phosphate group to ADP and in the process, forms

The formation of acetyl CoA occurs as the energy released is transferred along with the electrons to NADH energising acetate by adding coenzyme A. Firstly, a condensation reaction occurs, where the two-carbon acetate latches onto a four-carbon oxaloacetate forming the six-carbon citrate. Oxaloacetate is not oxidised but regenerated in the mitochondria thus allowing the reaction to occur consistently. Next the citrate is rearranged to isocitrate. Following, an oxidation reaction takes place, forming NADH by adding an electron to NAD, also the release of carbon dioxide from isocitrate is noticed. Again another NADH is produced from the conversion of the five-carbon alpha ketoglutarate into the four-carbon succinate.

In this preparative lab, an aldol (trans-p-anisalacetophenone) was produced from the reaction between p-anisaldehyde and acetophenone with the presence sodium hydroxide. The reaction also showed the importance of an enolate and the role it played in the mechanism. Sodium hydroxide acts as a catalyst in this experiment and is chosen because of its basic conditions and pH. The acetophenone carries an alpha hydrogen that has a pKa between 18 and 20. This alpha hydrogen is acidic because of its location near the carbonyl on acetophenone. When the sodium hydroxide is added, it deprotonates the hydrogen and creates an enolate ion. This deprotonation creates a nucleophilic carbon that can attack an electrophilic carbon (like a parent

Fermentation is an anaerobic, metabolic pathway used to oxidize nicotinamide adeninedinucleotide (reduced) (NADH) into nicotineamide-adenine-dinucleotide (NAD

The two carbon molecule bonds four carbon molecule called oxaloacete forming a carbon molecule knew as citrate. The second step reaction is classified as oxidation/reductions reactions. This process is formed by two molecule of CO2 and one molecule of ATP. The cycle electrons reduce NAD and FAD, which join the H+ ions to form NADH and FADH2, this result to an extra NADH being formed during the transition. In the mitochondrion, four molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2 are produced for each molecule of pyruvate, two molecules of pyruyate enter the matrix for each molecule of oxidized glucose, as a result of these eight molecules of NADH+ two molecules are produced. Six molecules of NADH+, molecules of FADH2 and two molecules of ATP synthesize itself in Krebs cycle. As a result, no oxygen is used in the described reactions. During chimiosmosis, oxygen only plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation. The next step is the electron transport; the electrons are stored on NADH and FADH2 and are used to produce ATP. Electron transport chain is essential to make most ATP produced in cellular respiration. The NADH and FAD2 from the Krebs cycle drop their electrons at the beginning of the transport chain. When the electrons move along the electron transport chain, it gives power to pump the hydrogen along the membrane from the matrix into the intermediate space. This process forms a gradient concentration forcing the hydrogen through ATP syntheses attaching

Over the past ten years, the Institute of Gas Technology, now Gas Technology Institute (GTI), USA and others have conducted research on the bioremediation of organic contaminants in soil. Most of this work has been associated with remediation of former Manufactured Gas Plant (MGP) sites, soils from industrial areas and oil production areas have also been studied. The results have shown that: (1) organic contaminants are biodegraded by indigenous soil microorganisms to a concentration that no longer decreases, or that decreases very slowly, with continued treatment; (2) reductions below this concentration are limited by the availability of the contaminants to the microorganisms; and (3) the residual contaminants that remain after biological

This has given rise to microbial electrosynthesis where chemolithoautotrophs are used to generate chemicals and biofuels are generated from electron donors. Non-carbon electron donors include H2, Fe2+, NH4 and all are produced and mobilized by electrical energy.

Thus, the foremost step in the biochemical conversion is the pretreatment of the biomass, which involves the deconstruction of the cell wall into its components, i.e., the lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose (Sun and Cheng, 2002; Kumar et al., 2009). The biomass can be pretreated using different physical, chemical, biological or combination of these methods (Kumar et al., 2009). Each method has its own advantages and limitations. The suitability of the pretreatment method depends on the type of the biomass feedstock (Khare et al., 2015). The efficiency of the pretreatment step, however, is the key factor determining the yield of the hydrolysis in the cellulosic ethanol production process (Alvira et al., 2010) as it ensures the accessibility of the carbohydrate polymers for their subsequent hydrolysis in the fermentable sugars. In the next step, i.e., the saccharification, the celluloses and hemicelluloses are hydrolysed into C6 and C5 sugars with the help of cellulases and hemicellulases enzymes respectively (Sarkar et al., 2012). The last step involves the conventional approach of fermentation of C6 and C5 sugars into ethanol using either native or genetically modified ethanologenic microbes (Gnansounnou and Dauriat, 2005).

Nannochloropsis oceanica is one of six species of the genus Nannochloropsis which has grabbed attention as a possible feedstock to produce biofuels due to its high productivity and oil content. Current progress in transformation and targeted gene replacement by homologous recombination in N. oceanica guarantee swift headway in the illumination of pathways of storage compound synthesis and their regulation. Given also its tiny genome, genetic engineering and ultimately synthetic biology tactics towards refining its productivity and adaptability have come within reach.