Why Do Primates Free Their Hands? How Is Walking Upright More Energy Efficient?

*John Guido and Sherry Werner make a point that “The stride leg functions to dynamically stabilize the hip and knee joints in a single leg stance to maintain standing posture for

The fundamental physical prerequisites of people , just like all organisms , are : water, for various metabolic process; foods, to provide energy, raw materials for developing entirely new living matter, as well as chemical substances required for vital reactions; oxygen, to discharge energy from foods materials; heat, to enhance chemical effects; and also pressure, to enable inhaling and exhaling” This like this article and think that it relates to . To be able to understand how humans evolved from early existence forms, we can quickly take a look at our closest relatives, the primates. Primates consist of us (Homo sapiens), the apes, the monkeys, as well as prosimians, for example, the lemur. We can easily be familiar with primate behavior

We share almost 99 percent of our genetic material with chimpanzees. Yet we have several traits that are very different. Two legged walking, or bipedalism seems to be one of the earliest of the major hominine characteristics to have evolved. To

The pelvis and spine tell you whether on organism walked upright or on all fours.

Primates first evolved from the trees of tropical forests, later to the ground. Through the times of promisians to human, many characteristics has been represented due to the adaptations to new environments and resulted in evolutionary changes. The Earth has encountered several geological and climatic changes over time. For the primates existed at that time had to adjust itself especially in body configurations and locomotion in order to better survive. It is important to be aware of this information since we are the part of occurring changes as well. Throughout the evolution owing to

The earliest humans were tree dwellers and occasionally walked on the ground. Around 6 million years ago our ancestors started walking on two legs. They developed an angled thigh bone to support the weight of their bodies when they stand upright. This lead to a strengthened knee to deal with the stress from walking

First, evidence from the hominid fossil Ardy and archaeological evidence from the same area where Ardy was found points to the evolution of bipedalism in a woodland environment. This goes against the previous assumption that bipeds adapted to a more desolate environment. Additionally, it was also previously believed that bipedalism started with organisms that walked on two legs and their knuckles as a today’s chimp walk. However, there is no evidence in Ardy’s bones that it ever walked using its knuckles. On the other hand, Ardy possesses a short, broad hipbone which allows for bipedalism, but also a much longer lower half of the pelvis which would be more useful for climbing. Consequently, while Ardy could walk on two legs, it could not walk as well as future bipeds such as the fossil Lucy or modern humans. Lucy is often described as “the ape who stood up” and is further down the evolutionary track toward modern humans. This evolutionary adaptation to stand and walk on two legs opened great doors for humankind. Most important was the fact that walking on two limbs rather than four freed up our very special hands and empowered humankind to build tools and reshape the world as no creature could

The most fascinating facet of obligate bipedalism in certain species as paralleled to species that only participate in bipedalism for small amounts of time, is the bone structure that allows for bipedalism, or either allows for walking on four limbs. Such as with our own pets, as stated in textbook Biological Anthropology, written by Craig Standford, the common dog will often stand on its own two legs, exhibiting bipedalism, but this bipedalism is only facultative, as the dog will abruptly drop back onto four legs after loosing equilibrium. This is due to the variances in the vertebral column of obligate and facultative bipeds. Obligate bipeds, being humans, have exclusively different molded vertebrae that permit for the center gravity

The commonalities between human primates and non-human primates illustrate the similar capabilities of the two species, but the differences show each’s ability to adapt and develop unique characteristics. The hand structure of humans can be compared to that of wild chimpanzees which have similar structure but with a few key differences. Both humans and chimpanzees have a high level of mobility that derives from their hands, and specifically their possession of an opposable thumb (Shelton, 2015). This ancestral trait is one of the reasons for the success of both species, and aids each species individually (Gibbons, 2015). However, there are differences in the hands of both species as well, and these differences dictate the limits of what humans

Also, testing on an australopithecine skeleton, it showed a broad range of a thigh and a pelvis bone that slanted inward to the direction of the knees which created stability for walking, affirming that they were

In 1981 Owen Lovejoy suggested that behavioral mechanisms were a factor in the switch to bipedalism. This behavioral mechanism helped hominids in reproductive processes. Having the hands free to carry food and other things to the mate and offspring is seen to be a strong selection factor for choosing a mate. Having a such factor helps with reproductive success in a monogamous mating structure similar to what humans have today (Jacobs, 90). When

Brueggemann did say, though, that this information does not deduce that the prostheses hold an advantage, but that this was a "different kind of locomotion" (Robinson).

Peter, 103). Thus, bipedalism of living hominids is considered to be more efficient than quadrupedalism (Rodman, S. Peter, 104). The morphology of locomotion is often a comprise with other dimensions of existence (Rodman, S. Peter, 105).

There has been much debate concerning the origins of bipedalism. Bipedalism, or the ability to move on two legs (eLucy, 2007) was said to have emerged due to climate change in East Africa, for sexual display purpose, to reduce exposure to sunlight, the need to use weapons and tools and many more (NOVA, 2013). There are numerous arguments associated with bipedalism as no one can be entirely sure as to what constituted to the emergence of this trait, which was first present in hominins Australopithecus Afarensis. Anthropologists claim that there is a missing link in the evolutionary lineage that makes it hard to confirm the real cause of bipedalism emergence. However, there are some models which are widely accepted by scientific world, such

In biped robot locomotion, the adaptation is one of the key issues that still not be completely finalized presently. Moreover, the adaptation control in biped robot is also complicated due to a hindrance to