masonry

(Travel guide) The Mayan pyramid were held together with lime mortar. (Infographic) Similar to how the `how the Egyptians used limestone to build the pyramids, but as time went on the limestone was most likely stolen. (Travel guide) Some of the Mayan pyramids were built straight from the ground or either built on top of another pyramid made before. On the other hand, the Egyptians never built the pyramids on top of another pyramid they actually just built it straight from the ground. (Data Analysis) For the Egyptians they used specific type of tools to create the pyramid; such as copper tools, bronze, wood, and stone, chisels, and mallets. Similar to the Mayans, they too also used chisels and hammers to create their

Bolted steel construction: this is when the main bulk of the construction is pre made at the workshop then bolted into place on site. This tends to be the preferred methods as it saves time and money as well having the right working conditions.

After perfecting the formula for this concrete, they had achieved a cement that could help construct durable buildings. By laying the concrete between bricks and then covering the facade of the building with marble slabs, the Romans made well constructed buildings that gave the appearance of pure marble (Connolly).

Compression is the force pressing a material and compacting it and acts on the towers of a suspension bridge, this force is created from the weight of the towers and the load on the bridge. Compression forces will also act on the surface of the bridge deck as when a load is applied it will have some flexibility and bend, it will then travel up the cables, ropes or chains to transfer the compression forces to the towers. The towers then dissipate the compression directly into the earth. (Bagga 2014).

ACI 318-63 requires that the minimum ratio of longitudinal bars shall be at least 1.0%. Also, The vertical center-to-center spacing of the lateral ties shall be one of the smallest of: (1) 16 longitudinal bar diameters to restrain longitudinal bars from buckling, (2) 48 tie diameters to ensure sufficient tie area to restrain the lateral displacement of the reinforcing bars, and (3) the least lateral dimension of the column to develop the maximum strength of the concrete core. As shown in Fig. 1, The dimensions and steel reinforcement details of the columns involved in this experimental program were particularly selected to represent relatively older columns. In this experimental program, the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, ρl, was constant

Stone quarries supplied the large blocks of granite, limestone, and sandstone that were used for building temples and tombs.

Materials included in common house construction included straw, wood, stone, sand, lime, and clay. Straw would often be used for the construction of roofs. Adobe bricks, very common in the construction of houses in the Aztec empire, would be made from water, sand, clay, and a material such as straw. The name translates to "dried brick" in Spanish. Floors might be dirt, stone, or plastered.

The Mayans took advantage of limestone and calcified rocks held together by mortar. Which later advanced into a common item for humans, mortar is used between bricks to hold them in place. The Aztecs created a “foundation system made of wooden pilings to keep their buildings from sinking in the swamp landscape”(History Channel). The Incas cut perfectly cut, geometric rocks to form sturdy buildings without the help of any tools. We still use many of these techniques today when people are building homes, with a foundation and the heavy paste mortar on

The materials included; limestone and marble, which were locally available though some marble was imported, wood was available from the forest, and stucco was also, used which was made from varying pieces of lime and water. From this, it is clear that every material was obtained locally, and manual work was greatly applied. It could shock to know that the building was strong even with the use of manual work in construction. It was built the ordinary way of placing the limestone one after the other and may be adding a coat of stucco, which was simple to believe it could result in such a strong

One of the reasons that intellect and strength are both equally contributing to the city is that intelligent engineers developed plans and carved inscriptions into the stone while the brute force of man power and a few clever contraptions like the pulley and the groma were used to move and place the huge stone blocks. The materials put into the blocks other than stone are including but not limited to are, "...Clay, mortar, wood, and stone". The stone came from quarries owned by the government.

Tesserae were made of, glass, clay, glass paste, and marble. Stones and pebbles were also a popular material.

All ziggurat’s outer layers consisted of mud bricks or sun-dried bricks. Ancient Mesopotamian ziggurats use mud brick because in Sumer, the Sumerians couldn’t find quality building stones. But what they could find was mud bricks, which were also the material ancient Sumerians used to construct their houses. Even the ziggurat’s platform are made out of mud brick.

It is shaped in a way to transfer weight to the towers and anchors with its tension (O'Connor, 1971, p. 372). Cables are made of high strength wires spirally bound to form a rope (O'Connor, 1971, p. 372). Vertical cable suspenders that are fastened to the main cables hang the actual roadway. Stiffening girders and trusses are along the side of the bridge to distribute concentrated loads and help to keep the motion of the bridge at a minimum (Troitsky, 1994, p115).

The foundation walls can be constructed using different types of materails, depending on the local conditions and construction requirements. You need to find the cuses of crack in detail:-

Superstructure bears the load that is being passed over the bridge and it transmits the forces caused by the same to substructure. Load received from the decking is transferred on to the substructure by Bearings. They also distribute the load evenly over the substructure material as it may not have sufficient strength to bear the superstructure load directly. Piers and Abutments are the vertical substructures which transfer the load to the earth in the foundation. Wing walls and returns are constructed as the extension of