##troglial-Ca2 + Activity Via Functional 3D Photoacoustic Imaging : Case Study

The second experiment sought to determine whether calcium entry is via L-type calcium channels, therefore, verapamil (10-5 M) was used to block these channels. The tissue was then stimulated using 0.2ml of Ach (10-5 M) and K+-depolarising solution.

In the Summer of 2015 I had the opportunity of accomplishing my own research project. With the help of my graduate student, I led us to better understand the neural pathway

The purpose of this essay is to explain the mechanisms of neural communication, and the influence that different drugs have on this communication. The nervous system is made up of several cells that are called neurons, which are situated inside the Central Nervous System (Martin, Carlson & Buskit, 2013). Neurons comprise of three mechanisms, a cell body which is referred to as the soma, dendrites and an axon (Pinel, 2011).

Three main maps can be reconstructed from CTP data: cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV), and mean transit time (MTT). Interpretation of the CTP maps is crucial in reversing functional damage and choosing the ideal treatment plan. Ischaemic brain tissue can be visualised in each map as regions of hypoperfusion within the brain tissue (Birenbaum et al., 2011; El-Koussy et al., 2014). Because CTP is a dynamic quantitative imaging technique, the percentage of brain damage can be calculated by measuring the mean values at the location of the same damaged tissue in the three maps. Moreover, the values for the damaged tissue are compared with those for normal tissue in the other, unaffected hemisphere. Finally, CBF is calculated by dividing CBV by MTT (Dorn et al.,

2010). The neuroinflammation is an early, non-specific immune reaction to tissue damage or pathogen invasion (Lee et al. 2010). Inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS) is characterized by increased glial activation, pro-inflammatory cytokine concentration, blood-brain-barrier permeability, and leukocyte invasion (Lee et al. 2010). Microglia are cells that support and protect neuronal functions (Lee at al. 2010). They act as the first and main form of active immune defense that orchestrate the endogenous immune response of the Central Nervous System. The microglia play a central role in the cellular response to pathological lesions such as Aβ. Aβ can attract and activate microglia, leading to clustering of microglia around Aβ deposits sites in the brain (Lee et al. 2010). Even though microglia have neuroprotective functions, neurotoxic mechanisms which involves continuous activation of microglia and toxic factors are released by microglia, which may lead to neuroinflammation (Lee et al. 2010). Astrocytes (star-shaped glial cells) are the most abundant cells in the brain and are located in the brain and spinal. Astrocytes have various functions such as: biochemical support of endothelial cells of the BBB, supplying nutrients to the nervous tissue, maintenance of extracellular ion balance, and healing the brain and spinal cord following traumatic injury (Lee et al., 2010). Chemokines are released by astrocytes which attract microglia and they further express proinflammatory products, thus increasing neuronal damage in the pathogenesis of AD (Lee et al., 2010). Astrocytes play a critical role in Aß clearance and degradation, and they also provide trophic support to neurons forming a protective barrier between Aß deposits and neurons (Wyss-Coray et al., 2003). Neurons contribute to the production of

It has been recently reported that rTMS induces transcription of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the murine brain. GFAP transcription is up-regulated in astrocytes of the dentate gyrus, and the magnitude of the response depends on the number of stimulus trains (5). Whether rTMS induces GFAP transcription in astrocytes directly or indirectly through neural activation remains to be determined.

Therefore, RNFL measurements have been extensively used in research to assess neurodegeneration (Jones-Odeh, 2015; Satue et al., 2010). Several studies have demonstrated significant thinning of the superior quadrant of the RNFL in patients with AD compared with control subjects, which has been calculated by some researcher to be around 10 to 11 μm (Berisha et al., 2007; Keslet et al., 2011; Ohno-Matsui, 2011).

As a result, resting cerebral blood flow is reduced and we can observe dysfunctions of the mechanism responsible for brain circulation (op.

Astrocytes have been shown to communicate amongst themselves, as well as participate in bidirectional communication with neurons via the 'Tripartite synapse '. Ca2+-dependent glutamate release also

Magistretti’s article discussed how the brain uses energy substrates to function later emphasizing the role of astrocytes in the entire process. Magistretti also mentioned the use of technology in visualizing the brain, blood flow in the brain, neurophysiology, and of course, neurons. Magistretti presented neurons as brain cells that send signals, he also analogized neurons as the brain’s battery, which is the standard definition and understanding of the neuron. Although the author presented a concise definition of the neuron, he made sure to mention how the flow of ionic charges is essential to neuron signaling, even mentioning some of the ions that flow across the neuron’s membrane, such as potassium and calcium. There was also mention of blood flow; Magistretti’s main purpose of mentioning the blood flow to the brain was to illustrate the fact that the brain collects 20% of “stuff” in the blood, which in turn, is used to fuel the brain; the author also mentioned the disparity between the brain’s mass and the amount of blood the brain receives. Magistretti discussed the blood flow to the brain in order to set up his main point, that being, how and what the brain uses as energy substrates and astrocytes fundamental role in the process.

Most of the current focus on developing neuroprotective therapies is aimed at preventing neuronal death. However, these approaches have not been successful despite many years of clinical trials mainly because the numerous side effects observed in humans and absent in animals used at preclinical level. Recently, the research in this field aims to overcome this problem by developing strategies which induce, mimic, or boost endogenous protective responses and thus do not interfere with physiological neurotransmission.

I have elected to pursue research in the field of neuroscience because I relish the approach of logical thinking to satisfy the curiosity of knowing things about me and the world around me. Neuroscience is a fascinating area with a limitless possibility of understanding and uncovering to resolve so many unanswered and unimagined questions. Although, in recent years, a large number of breakthroughs research have been done in the area of neuroscience, still, there is a lot more to discover and untangle in this area. Such an enormous amount of research work in this area has led open to the advancement in the diagnosis and therapeutic approaches to several neurological disorders and cancer such as glioma. Therefore, I decided

We will further discuss the pre-clinical and clinical studies testing the potential in which the modulation of these factors could be used for therapeutic applications in neurodegeneration.

This method utilizes the electrochemical properties of the neural membrane, where voltage-sensitive dyes change fluorescence. A sample is exposed to a monochromatic excitation light, and the fluorescent signal is recorded. The imaging depth is 1 mm and the spatial resolution is dependent on the optical system. Unfortunately, the method is invasive and toxic. Photo acoustic microscopy(PAM) combines optical and ultrasound techniques to obtain excellent optical absorption contrast and spatial resolution. Optical-PAM gives a cellular level resolution, while acoustic-resolution PAM has a high lateral resolution. The optical source is a laser wavelength and doesn’t need a contrast agent. However, this method can be used to image cerebral blood flow and oxygenation only. Near-infrared spectroscopy(NIS) consists of laser wavelengths that measure changes in activity through the measurements of HbO and HbR. Although it has lower spatial resolution, it is lower in cost, and more portable. It can be used for open brain imaging, human research, and animal experiments. Because the use of one technique provides a single aspect of the processes going on for a sample, it is better to utilize multimodal imaging techniques. However, in terms of the usage of these techniques for human studies, the thickness of the skull creates spatial resolution limitations, and therefore most can only

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounds the brain and spinal column and contains small molecules, peptides, proteins etc., which play critical roles in many physiological processes in the central nervous system (CNS). CSF is considered a prime reservoir for neurological studies because the content of proteins and metabolites and the changes in their concentrations directly reflect the internal milieu of the brain: it offers a unique window to search for new biomarkers and to improve early diagnosis of neurological diseases [1-3]. However, the complexities of the brain and human neurological disorders represent a severe roadblock to identify novel neurological biomarkers. A biomarker can be defined as a biochemical, pharmacological or