Biology: The Dynamic Science (MindTap Course List)
Biology: The Dynamic Science (MindTap Course List)
4th Edition
ISBN: 9781305389892
Author: Peter J. Russell, Paul E. Hertz, Beverly McMillan
Publisher: Cengage Learning
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Concept explainers

Evolution
The history and science of origin and evolution comprise two events, the beginning of life and expansion of life. Our earth originated about 4.5 billion years ago. The term evolution is derived from two Latin words and means the act of unfolding or unrol…
Cladistics
Cladistics is a technique in the classification of organisms, where they are grouped into different clades. The proof for the relationships that are hypothesized is based on the shared derived characteristics known as synapomorphies. These characteristic…
Outgroups
Outgroups are significant in studying cladistics or phylogenetics (that describe the evolutionary relationship between different organisms). Further, it is also important to understand the differences and similarities between different organisms.
Taxonomy
It is the branch of biology that works with the identification of organisms at first, then naming, and classification of them into phenetic or phylogenetic groups (a classification system). In other words, it is the scientific study of biological diversi…
Phylogenetics
Phylogenetics is the scientific study of how various groups of organisms are related at the evolutionary level. It finds the relationship between various organisms based on their evolutionary similarities and differences. It is a part of the taxonomy. Al…
Question

Mammals, like humans and apes, have 5 digits on their fore and hind limbs. Modern horses have 1. How might you recontrust the ancestral state of mammal tow number?

a) investigate the number of toes on all extant horses and apes
b) investigate the number of toes for other mammals and use parsimony to deduce the ancestral state
c) investigate the number of toes for an outgroup that is closely related to mammals, for example reptiles or amphibians
d) either b or c
e) all of the above

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