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All Textbook Solutions for Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach

Define and e xplain the differences between the following terms. a. law and theory b. theory and experiment c. qualitative and quantitative d. hypothesis and theory Is the scientific method suitable for solving problems only in the sciences? Explain.Use Daltons atomic theory to account for each of the following. a. the law of conservation o f mass b. the law of definite proportion c. the law of multiple proportions What evidence led to the conclusion that cathode rays had a negative charge?What discoveries were made by J. J. Thomson, Henri Becquerel, and Lord Rutherford? How did Daltons model of the atom have to be modified to account for these discoveries?Consider Ernest Rutherfords -particle bombardment experiment illustrated in Fig. l- 16. How did the results of this experiment lead Rutherford away from the plum pudding model of the atom to propose the nuclear model o f the atom?Do the proton and the neutron have exactly the same mass? How do the masses of the proton and neutron compare to the mass of the electron? Which particles make the greatest contribution to the mass of an atom? which particles make the greatest contribution to the chemical properties of an mom?What is the distinction between atomic number and mass number? Between mass number and atomic mass?Paracelsus, a sixteenth-century alchemist and healer, adopted as his slogan: The patients are your textbook, the sickbed is your study. Is this view consistent with using the scientific method?What is wrong with the following statement? The results of the experiment do not agree with the theory. Something must be wrong with the experiment.Which of the following is true about an individual atom? Explain. a. An individual atom should be considered to be a solid. b. An individual atom should be considered to be a liquid. c. An individual atom should be considered to be a gas. d. The state of the atom depends on which element it is. e. An individual atom cannot be considered to be a solid, liquid, or gas. Justify your choice, and for choices you did not pick, explain what is wrong with them.These questions concern the work of J. J. Thomson. a. From Thomsons work, which particles do you think he would feel are most important for the formation of compounds (chemical changes), and why? b. Of the remaining two subatomic particles, which do you place second in importance for forming compounds, and why? c. Propose three models that explain Thomson's findings and evaluate them. To be complete you should include Thomsons findings Which of the following explain how an ion is formed? Explain your answer. a. adding or subtracting protons to/from an atom b. adding or subtracting neutrons to/from an atom c. adding or subtracting electrons to/from an atom You have a chemical in a sealed glass container filled with air. The setup is sitting on a balance as shown below. The chemical is ignited by means of a magnifying glass focusing sunlight on the reactant. After the chemical has completely burned, which of the following is true? Explain your answer. a. The balance will read less than 250.0 g. b. The balance will read 250.0 g. c. The balance will read greater than 250.0 g. d. The scales reading cannot be determined without knowing the identity of the chemical.You may have noticed that when water boils, you can see bubbles that rise to the surface of the water. Which of the following is inside these bubbles? Explain. a. air b. hydrogen and oxygen gas c. oxygen gas d. water vapor e. carbon dioxide gas One of the best indications of a useful theory is that it raises more questions for further experimentation than it originally answered. Does this apply to Daltons atomic theory? Give examples.9ALQ Which (if any) of the following can be determined by knowing the number of protons in a neutral element? Explain your answer. a. the number of neutrons in the neutral element b. the number of electrons in the neutral element c. the name of the element The difference between a law and a theory is the difference between what and why. Explain.As part of a science project, you study traffic patterns in your city at an intersection in the middle of downtown. You set up a device that counts the cars passing through this intersection for a 24-hour period during a weekday. The graph of hourly traffic looks like this. a. At what time(s) does the highest number of cars pass through the intersection? b. At what time(s) does the lowest number of cars pass through the intersection? c. Briefly describe the trend in numbers of cars over the course of the day. d. Provide a hypothesis explaining the trend in numbers of cars over the course of the day. e. Provide a possible experiment that could test your hypothesis.Explain the fundamental steps of the scientific method. The scientific method is a dynamic process. What does this mean?When hydrogen is burned in oxygen to form water, the composition of water formed does not depend on the amount of oxygen reacted. Interpret this in terms of the law of definite proportion.Explain the law of conservation of mass, the law of definite proportion, and the law of multiple proportions.Chlorine has two natural isotopes: C1737I and C1735I. Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to form the compound HCI. Would a given amount of hydrogen react with different masses of the two chlorine isotopes? Does this conflict with the law of definite proportion? Why or why not?The vitamin niacin (nicotinic acid, C6H5NO2) can be isolated from a variety of natural sources such as liver, yeast, milk, and whole grain. It also can be synthesized from commercially available materials. From a nutritional point of view, which source of nicotinic acid is best for use in a multivitamin tablet? Why?Section 1-5 describes the postulates of Daltons atomic theory. With some modifications, these postulates hold up very well regarding how we view elements, compounds, and chemical reactions today. Answer the following questions concerning Dalton's atomic theory and the modifications made today. a. The atom can be broken down into smaller parts. What are the smaller parts? b. How are atoms of hydrogen identical to each other and how can they be different from each other? c. How are atoms of hydrogen different from atoms of helium? How can H atoms be similar to He atoms? d. How is water different from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) even though both compounds are composed of only hydrogen and oxygen? e. What happens in a chemical reaction and why is mass conserved in a chemical reaction?The contributions of J. J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford led the way to todays understanding of the structure of the atom. What were their contributions?What is the modern view of the structure of the atom?The number of protons in an atom determines the identity of the atom. What do the number and arrangement of the electrons in an atom determine? What does the number of neutrons in an atom determine?If the volume of a proton is similar to the volume of an electron, how will the densities of these two particles compare to each other?23Q What refinements had to be made in Daltons atomic theory to account for Gay-Lussacs results on the combining volumes of gases?When mixtures of gaseous H2 and gaseous Cl2 react, a product forms that has the same properties regardless of the relative amounts of H2 and Cl2 used. a. How is this result interpreted in terms of the law of definite proportion? b. When a volume of H2 reacts with an equal volume of Cl2 at the same temperature and pressure, what volume of product having the formula HCI is formed?Observations of the reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas show us that 1 volume of nitrogen reacts with 3 volumes of hydrogen to make 2 volumes of gaseous product, as shown below: Determine the formula of the product and justify your answer.A sample of chloroform is found to contain 12.0 g of carbon, 106.4 g of chlorine, and 1.01 g of hydrogen. If a second sample of chloroform is found to contain 30.0 g of carbon, what is the total mass of chloroform in the second sample?A sample of H2SO4 contains 2.02 g of hydrogen, 32.07 g of sulfur, and 64.00 g of oxygen. How many grams of sulfur and grams of oxygen are present in a second sample of H2SO4 containing 7.27 g of hydrogen?Hydrazine, ammonia, and hydrogen azide al1 contain only nitrogen and hydrogen. The mass of hydrogen that combines with 1.00 g of nitrogen for each compound is 1.44 101 g, 2.16 101 g, and 2.40 102 g, respectively. Show how these data illustrate the law of multiple proportions.Consider 100.0-g samples of two different compounds consisting only of carbon and oxygen. One compound contains 27.2 g of carbon and the other has 42.9 g of carbon. How can these data support the law of multiple proportions if 42.9 is not a multiple of 27.2? Show that these data support the law of multiple proportions.The three most stable oxides of carbon are carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and carbon suboxide (C3O2) . The molecules can be represented as Explain how these molecules illustrate the law of multiple proportions.Two elements, R and Q, combine to form two binary compounds. In the first compound, 14.0 g of R combines with 3.00 g of Q. In the second compound, 7.00 g of R combines with 4.50 g of Q. Show that these data are in accord with the law of multiple proportions. If the formula of the second compound is RQ, what is the formula of the first compound?33E In a combustion reaction, 46.0 g of ethanol reacts with 96.0 g of oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide. If 54.0 g of water is produced, what mass of carbon dioxide is produced?Early tables of atomic weights (masses) were generated by measuring the mass of a substance that reacts with 1.00 g of oxygen. Given the following data and taking the atomic mass of hydrogen as 1.00, generate a table of relative atomic masses for oxygen, sodium, and magnesium. Element Mass That Combines with 1.00Oxygen Assumed Formula Hydrogen 0.126g HO Sodium 2.875g Nao Magnesium 1.500g Mgo Indium oxide contains 4.784 g of indium for every 1.000 g of oxygen. In 1869, when Mendeleev first presented his version of the periodic table, he proposed the formula ln2O3 for indium oxide. Before that time it was thought that the formula was InO. What values for the atomic mass of indium are obtained using these two formulas? Assume that oxygen has an atomic mass of 16.00.37E If you wanted to make an accurate scale model of the hydrogen atom and decided that the nucleus would have a diameter of 1 mm, what would be the diameter of the entire model?In an experiment it was found that the total charge on an oil drop was 5.93 1018 C. How many negative charges does the drop contain?A chemist in a galaxy far, far away performed the Millikan oil drop experiment and got the following results for the charges on various drops. Use these data to calculate the charge of the electron in zirkombs. 2.5610-12zirkombs7.6810-12zirkombs3.8410-12zirkombs6.4010-13zirkombs Write the symbol of each atom using the ZAX format.For carbon-14 and carbon-12, how many protons and neutrons are in each nucleus? Assuming neutral atoms, how many electrons are present in an atom of carbon-14 and in an atom of carbon-12?How many protons and neutrons are in the nucleus of each of the following atoms? In a neutral atom of each element, how many electrons are present? a. 79Br b. 81Br c. 239Pu d. 133Cs e. 3H f. 56Fe What number of protons and neutrons is contained in the nucleus of each of the following atoms'? Assuming each atom is uncharged, what number of electrons is present? a. U92235 b. A1327I c. F2657e d. P82208b e. R3786b f. C2041a 45E Write the atomic symbol (ZAX) for each of the isotopes described below. a. number of protons = 27, number of neutrons = 31 b. the isotope of boron with mass number I 0 c. Z= 12, A=23 d. atomic number 53, number of neutrons = 79 e. Z = 20, number of neutrons = 27 f. number of protons = 29, mass number 65 For each of the following ions, indicate the number of protons and electrons the ion contains. a. Ba2+ b. Zn2+ c. N3 d. Rb+ e. Co3+ f. Te2 g. Br How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in each of the following atoms or ions? a. M1224g b. M1224g2+ c. C2759o2+ d. C2759o3+ e. C2759o f. S3479e g. S3479e2- h. N2863i i. N2859i2+49E What is the symbol of an ion with 16 protons, 18 neutrons, and 18 electrons? What is the symbol for an ion that has 16 protons, 16 neutrons, and 18 electrons?Complete the following table:Complete the following table:Four Fe2+ ions are key components of hemoglobin, the protein that transports oxygen in the blood. Assuming that these ions are F53e2+ , how many protons and neutrons are present in each nucleus, and how many electrons are present in each ion?Which of the following statements is/are true? For the false statements, correct them. a. All particles in the nucleus of an atom are charged. b. The atom is best described as a uniform sphere of matter in which electrons are embedded. c. The mass of the nucleus is only a very small fraction of the mass of the entire atom. d. The volume of the nucleus is only a very small fraction of the total volume of the atom. e. The number of neutrons in a neutral atom must equal the number of electrons.Identify each of the following elements. Give the number of protons and neutrons in each nucleus. a. X1531 b. X53127 c. X1939 d. X70173 The isotope of an unknown element, X, has a mass number of 79. The most stable ion of this isotope has 36 electrons and has a 2 charge. Which of the following statements is(are) true? For the false statements, correct them. a. This ion has more electrons than protons in the nucleus. b. The isotope of X contains 38 protons. c. The isotope of X contains 41 neutrons. d. The identity of X is strontium, Sr.57AE The early alchemists used to do an experiment in which water was boiled for several days in a sealed glass container. Eventually, some solid residue would appear in the bottom of the flask, which was interpreted to mean that some of the water in the flask had been converted into earth. When Lavoisier repeated this experiment, he found that the water weighed the same before and after heating and the mass of the flask plus the solid residue equaled the original mass of the flask. Were the alchemists correct? Explain what happened. (This experiment is described in the article by A. F. Scott in Scientific American, January 1984.)In a reaction, 34.0 g of chromium(III) oxide reacts with 12.1 g of aluminum to produce chromium and aluminum oxide. If 23.3 g of chromium is produced, what mass of aluminum oxide is produced?60CWP Complete the following table. Atmos Number of Protons Number of Neutrons H24e N1020e T2248i O76190s C2750o Complete the following table.Which of the following is( are) correct? a. C40a2+ contains 20 protons and 18 electrons. b. Rutherford created the cathode-ray tube and was the founder of the charge-to-mass ratio of an electron. c. An electron is heavier than a proton. d. The nucleus contains protons, neutrons, and electrons.64CP Each of the following statements is true, but Dalton might have had trouble explaining some of them with his atomic theory. Give explanations for the following statements. a. The space-filling models for ethyl alcohol and dimethyl These two compounds have the same composition by mass (52% carbon, 13% hydrogen, and 35% oxygen), yet the two have different melting points, boiling points, and solubilities in water. b. Burning wood leaves an ash that is only a small fraction of the mass of the original wood. c. Atoms can be broken down into smaller particles. d. One sample of lithium hydride is 87.4% lithium by mass, while another sample of lithium hydride is 74.9% lithium by mass. However, the two samples have the same chemical properties.Reaction of 2.0 L of hydrogen gas with 1.0 L of oxygen gas yields 2.0 L of water vapor. All gases are at the same temperature and pressure. Show how these data support the idea that oxygen gas is a diatomic molecule. Must we consider hydrogen to be a diatomic molecule to explain these results?A combustion reaction involves the reaction of a substance with oxygen gas. The complete combustion of any hydrocarbon (binary compound of carbon and hydrogen) produces carbon dioxide and water as the only products. Octane is a hydrocarbon that is found in gasoline. Complete combustion of octane produces 8 liters of carbon dioxide for every 9 liters of water vapor (both measured at the same temperature and pressure). What is the ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms in a molecule of octane?A chemistry instructor makes the following claim: Consider that if the nucleus were the size of a grape, the electrons would be about I mile away on average. Is this claim reasonably accurate? Provide mathematical support.You have two distinct gaseous compounds made from element X and element Y. The mass percents are as follows: Compound I: 30.43% X, 69.57% Y Compound II: 63.64% X, 36.36% Y In their natural standard states, element X and element Y exist as gases. (Monatomic? Diatomic? Triatomic? That is for you to determine.) When you react gas X with gas Y to make the products, you get the following data (all at the same pressure and temperature): 1. volume gas X + 2 volumes gas Y2 volumes compound I 2. volumes gas X + 1 volume gas Y2 volumes compound II Assume the simplest possible formulas for reactants and products in the chemical equations above. Then, determine the relative atomic masses of element X and element Y.Using the information in Table 1-1, answer the following questions. In an ion with an unknown charge, the total mass of all the electrons was determined to be 2.55 1026 g, while the total mass of its protons was 5.34 1023 g. What is the identity and charge of this ion? What is the symbol and mass number of a neutral atom whose total mass of its electrons is 3.92 1026 g, while its neutrons have a mass of 9.35 1023 g?A single molecule has a mass of 7.31 1023 g. Provide an example of a real molecule that can have this mass. Assume the elements that make up the molecule are made of light isotopes where the number of protons equals the number of neutrons in the nucleus of each element.You have gone back in time and are working with Dalton on a table of relative 1uasses. Following are his data. 0.602 g gas A reacts with 0.295 g gas B 0.172 g gas B reacts with 0.401 g gas C 0.320 g gas A reacts with 0.374 g gas C a. Assuming simplest formulas (AB, BC, and AC), construct a table of relative masses for Dalton. b. Knowing some history of chemistry, you tell Dalton that if he determines the volumes of the gases reacted at constant temperature and pressure, he need not assume simplest formulas. You collect the following data: 6 volumes gas A + 1 volume gas B 4 volumes product I volume gas B + 4 volumes gas C 4 volumes product 3 volumes gas A + 2 volumes gas C 6 volumes product Write the simplest balanced equations, and find the actual relative masses of the elements. Explain your reasoning.Four types of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) are ultraviolet, microwaves, gamma rays, and visible. All of these types of EMR can be characterized by wavelength, frequency, photon energy, and speed of travel. Define these terms and rank the four types of electromagnetic radiation in order of increasing wavelength, frequency, photon energy, and speed.Characterize the Bohr model of the atom. In the Bohr model, what do we mean when we say something is quantized? How does the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom explain the hydrogen emission spectrum? Why is the Bohr model fundamentally incorrect?What experimental evidence supports the quantum theory of light? Explain the wave-particle duality of all matter .. For what size particles must one consider both the wave and the particle properties?List the most important ideas of the quantum mechanical model of the atom. Include in your discussion the terms or names wave function orbital Heisenberg uncertainity principle, de Broglie. Schrdinger, and probability distribution.What are quantum numbers? What information do we get from the quantum numbers n, l, and ml? We define a spin quantum number (ms), but do we know that an electron literally spins?How do 2p orbitals differ from each other? How do 2p and 3p orbitals differ from each other? What is a nodal surface in an atomic orbital? What is wrong with lp, ld, 2d, lf, 2f, and 3f orbitals? Explain what we mean when we say that a 4s electron is more penetrating than a 3d electron.Four blocks of elements in a periodic table refer to various atomic orbitals being filled. What are the four blocks and the corresponding orbitals? How do you get the energy ordering of the atomic orbitals from the periodic rable? What is the aufbau principle? Hund's rule? The Pauli exclusion principle? There are two common exceptions to the groundstate electron configuration for elements 1- 36 as predicted by the periodic table. What are they?What is the difference between core electrons and valence electrons? Why do we emphasize the valence electrons in an atom when discussing atomic properties? What is the relationship between valence electrons and elements in the same group of the periodic table?9RQ The radius trend and the ionization energy trend are exact opposites. Does this make sense?1ALQ Defend and criticize Bohrs model. Why was it reasonable that such a model was proposed, and what evidence was there that it "works"? Why do we no longer "believe" in it?The first four ionization energies for the elements X and Y are shown below. The units are not kJ/mol. x y First 170 200 Second 350 400 Third 1800 3500 Fourth 2500 5000 Identify the elements X and Y. There may be more than one correct answer, so explain completely.Compare the first ionization energy of helium to its second ionization energy, remembering that both electrons come from the ls orbital. Explain the difference without using actual numbers from the text.Which has the larger second ionization energy, lithium or beryllium? Why?Explain why a graph of ionization energy versus atomic number (across a row) is not linear. Where are the exceptions? Why are there exceptions?7ALQ Account for the fact that the line that separates the metals from the nonmetals on the periodic table is diagonal downward to the right instead of horizontal or vertical.Explain electron from a quantum mechanical perspective, including a discussion of atomic radii, probabilities, and orbitals.Choose the best response for the following. The ionization energy for the chlorine atom is equal in magnitude to the electron affinity for a. the CI atom. b. the CI ion. c. the CI + ion. d. the F atom. e. none of these. Explain each choice. Justify your choice, and for the choices you did not select, explain what is incorrect about them.Consider the following statement "The ionization energy for the potassium atom is negative, because when K loses an electron to become K +, it achieves a noble gas electron configuration." Indicate everything that is correct in this statement. Indicate everything that is incorrect. Correct the incorrect information and explain.12ALQ How does probability fit into the description of the atom?14ALQ 15ALQ Is the following statement true or false? The hydrogen atom has a 3s orbital. Explain.Which is higher in energy, the 2s or 2p orbital, in hydrogen? Is this also true for helium? Explain.Prove mathematically that it is more energetically favorable for a fluorine atom to take an electron from a sodium atom than for a fluorine atom to take an electron from another fluorinc atom.What type of relationship (direct or inverse) e xists between wavelength, frequency, and photon energy? What does a photon energy unit of a joule equal?What do we mean by the frequency of electromagnetic radiation? Is the frequency the same as the speed of the electromagnetic radiation?Explain the photoelectric effect Describe briefly why the study of electromagnetic radiation bas been important to our understanding of the arrangement of electrons in atoms How does the wavelength of a fast-pitched baseball compare to the wavelength of an electron traveling at 110 the speed of light? What is the significance of this comparison? See Example 2-3.The following is an energy-level diagram for electronic transitions in the Bohr hydrogen atom. a. Explain why the energy levels get closer together as they increase. Provide mathematical support for this. b. Verify that the colors given in the diagram are correct. Provide mathematical support.The Bohr model works for only one electron species. Why do we discuss it in this text (what's good about it)?We can represent both probability and radial probability versus distance from the nucleus for a hydrogen ls orbital as depicted below. What does each graph tell us about the electron in a hydrogen 1s orbital?27Q The periodic table consists of four blocks of elements that correspond to s, p, d, and f orbitals being filled. After f orbitals come g and h orbitals In theory, if a g block and an h block of elements existed, bow long would the rows of g and h elements be in this theoretical periodic table?29Q 30Q Elements with very large ionization energies also tend to have highly negative (favorable) electron affinities. Explain. Which group of elements would you expect to be an exception to this statement?32Q 33Q Scientists use emission spectra to confirm the presence of an element in materials of unknown composition. Why is this possible?Does the minimization of electron-electron repulsions correlate with Hund's rule?36Q 37Q Many more anhydrous lithium salts are hygroscopic (readily absorb water) than are those of the other alkali metals. Explain.The laser in an audio CD player uses light with a wavelength of 7.80 102 nm. Calculate the frequency of this light.An FM radio station broadcasts at 99.5 MHz. Calculate the wavelength of the corresponding radio waves.Microwave radiation has a wavelength on the order of 1.0 cm. Calculate the frequency and the energy of a single photon of this radiation.A photon of ultraviolet (UV) light possesses enough energy to mutate a strand of human DNA. What is the energy of a single UV photon and 1 mole of UV photons having a wavelength of 25 nm? 1 mol UV photons = 6.022 1023 UV photons.Octyl methoxycinoamate and oxybenzone are common ingredients in sunscreen applications. These compounds work by absorbing ultraviolet (UV) B light (wavelength 280-320 nm), the UV light most associated with sunburn symptoms. What frequency range of light do these compounds absorb?Human color vision is " produced" by the nervous system based on how three different cone receptors interact with photons of light in the eye. These three different types of cones interact with photons of different frequency light, as indicated in the following chart: Cone Type Range of Light Frequency Detected S 6.00-7.49 1014s1 M 4.76-6.62 1014s1 L 4.28-6.00 1014s1 What wavelength ranges (and corresponding colors) do the three types of cones detect?Consider the following waves representing electromagnetic radiation: Which wave has the longer wavelength? Calculate the wavelength. Which wave has the higher frequency and larger phostate energy? Calculate these values. Which wave has the greater velocity? What type of electromagnetic radiation does each wave represent?One type of electromagnetic radiation has a frequency of 107.1 MHz, another type has a wavelength of 2.12 1010 m, and another type of electromagnetic radiation has photons with energy equal to 3.97 1019 J/pboton. Identify each type of electromagnetic radiation and place them in order of increasing photon energy and increasing frequency.Carbon absorbs energy at a wavelength of 150. nm. The total amount of energy emitted by a carbon sample is 1.98 105 J. Calculate the number of carbon atoms present in the sample, assuming that each atom emits one photon.X rays have wavelengths on the order of 1 1010 m. Calculate the energy of 1.0 1010 m X rays in units of kilojoules per mole of X rays. (1 mol X rays= 6.022 1023 X rays.)AM radio waves have wavelengths on the order of 1 104 m. Calculate the energy of 1.0 104 m radio waves in units of kilojoules per mole of radio waves. Consider that the bond energy of a carbon-carbon single bond found in organic compounds is 347 kJ/mol. Would X rays and/or radio waves be able to disrupt organic compounds by breaking carbon-carbon single bonds?The work function of an element is the energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the solid element. The work function for lithium is 279.7 kJ/mol (that is, it takes 279.7 kJ of energy to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of Li atoms on the surface of Li metal; l mol Li = 6.022 1023 atoms Li). What is the maximum wavelength of light that can remove an electron from an atom on the surface of lithium metal?It takes 208.4 kJ of energy to remove 1 mole of electrons from an atom on the surface of rubidium metal. (1 mol electrons = 6.022 1023 electrons.) How much energy does it take to remove a single electron from an atom on the surface of solid rubidium? What is the maximum wavelength of light capable of doing this?It takes 7.21 1019 J of energy to remove an electron from an iron atom. What is the maximum wavelength of light that can do this?Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the gas phase. The ionization energy of gold is 890.1 kJ/mol. Is light with a wavelength of 225 nm capable of ionizing a gold atom (removing an electron) in the gas phase? (l mol gold = 6.022 1023 atoms gold.)Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for each of the following. a. an electron with a velocity 10.% of the speed of light b. a tennis ball (55 g) served at 35 m/s (80 mi/h)Neutron diffraction is used in determining the structures of molecules. a. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a neutron moving at 1.00% of the speed of light. b. Calculate the velocity of a neutron with a wavelength of 75 pm (l pm = 1012 m).A particle has a velocity that is 90.% of the speed of light. If the wavelength of the particle is 1.5 1015 m, what is the mass of the particle?Calculate the velocities of electrons with de Broglie wavelengths of 1.0 102 nm and 1.0 nm.Calculate the wavelength of light emiued when each of the following transitions occur in the hydrogen atom. What type of electromagnetic radiation is emilled in each transition? a. n = 3 n = 2 b. n = 4 n = 2 c. n = 2 n = 1 Calculate the wavelength of light emitted when each of the following transitions occur in the hydrogen atom. What type of electromagnetic radiation is emitted in each transition? a. n = 4 n = 3 b. n =5 n = 4 c. n = 5 n = 3 Using vertical lines, indicate the transitions from Exercise 57 on an energy-level diagram for the hydrogen atom (see Fig. 2-9).Using vertical lines, indicate the transitions from Exercise 58 on an energy-level diagram for the hydrogen atom (see Fig. 2-9).Calculate the longest and shortest wavelengths of light emilled by electrons in the hydrogen atom that begin in the n = 6 state and then fall to states with smaller values of n.Assume that a hydrogen atoms electron has been excited to the n = 5 level. How many different wavelengths of light can be emitted as this excited atom loses energy?Does a photon of visible light ( 400 to 700 nm) have sufficient energy to excite an electron in a hydrogen atom from the n = 1 to the n = 5 energy state? From the n = 2 to the n = 6 energy state?An electron is excited from the n = 1 ground state to the n = 3 state in a hydrogen atom. Which of the following statements is/are true? Correct the false statements to make them true. a. It takes more energy to ionize (completely remove) the electron from n = 3 than from the ground state. b. The electron is farther from the nucleus on average in the n = 3 state than in the n = 1 state. c. The wavelength of light emitted if the electron drops from n = 3 to n = 2 will be shorter than the wavelength of light emitted if the electron falls from n = 3 to n = l. d. The wavelength of light emitted when the electron returns to the ground state from n = 3 will be the same as the wavelength of light absorbed to go from n = 1 to n = 3. e. For n = 3, the electron is in the first excited state.Calculate the maximum wavelength of light capable of removing an electron for a hydrogen atom from the energy state characterized by n = 1, by n = 2.Consider an electron for a hydrogen atom in an excited state. The maximum wavelength of electromagnetic radiation that can completely remove (ionize) the electron from the H atom is 1460 nm. What is the initial excited state for the electron (n = ?)?An excited hydrogen atom with an electron in the n = 5 state emits light having a frequency of 6.90 1014 s1. Determine the principal quantum level for the final state in this electronic transition.An excited hydrogen atom emits light with a wavelength of 397.2 nm to reach the energy level for which n = 2. In which principal quantum level did the electron begin?Using the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, calculate x for each of the following. a. an electron with v = 0.100 m/s b. a baseball (mass = 145 g) with v = 0.100 m/s How does the answer in part a compare with the size of a hydrogen atom? How does the answer in part b correspond to the size of a baseball?The Heisenberg uncertainty principle can be expressed in the form Eth4 where E represents energy and t represents time. Show that the units for this form are the same as the units for the form used in this chapter: x(mv)h4 What are the possible values for the quantum numbers n, l, and ml?Identify each of the following orbitals and determine the n and l quantum numbers. Explain your answers. a. b.Which of the following sets of quantum numbers are not allowed in the hydrogen atom? For the sets of quantum numbers that are incorrect, state what is wrong in each set. a. n = 3, l = 2, ml = 2 b. n = 4, l = 3, ml = 4 c. n = 0, l = 0, ml, = 0 d. n = 2, l= 1, ml, = 1 Which of the following sets of quantum numbers are not allowed? For each incorrect set, state why it is incorrect. a. n = 3, l = 3, ml = 0, ms = 12 b. n = 4, l = 3, ml = 2, ms = 12 c. n = 4, l = 1, ml = l, ms = +12 d. n = 2, l = 1, ml = 1, ms = 1 e. n = 5, l = 4, ml = 2, ms = +12 f. n = 3, l = 1, ml = 2, ms = 12 What is the physical significance of the value of 2 at a particular point in an atomic orbital?In defining the sizes of orbitals, why must we use an arbitrary value, such as 90% of the probability of finding an electron in that region?Total radial probability distributions for the helium, neon, and argon atoms are shown in the following graph. How can one interpret the shapes of these curves in terms of electron configurations, quantum numbers, and nuclear charges?Tbe relative orbital levels for the hydrogen atom can be represented as Draw the relative orbital energy levels for atoms with more than one electron and explain your answer. Also explain bow the following radial probability distributions support your answer.How many orbitals in an atom can have the designation 5p, 3dz2, 4d, n = 5, n = 4?How many electrons in an atom can have the designation lp, 6dx2y2, 4f, 7py, 2s, n = 3?Give the maximum number of electrons in an atom that can have these quantum numbers: a. n = 4 b. n = 5, ml = + l c. n = 5,ms = +12 d. n = 3, l = 2 e. n = 2, l = 1 Give the maximum number of electrons in an atom that can have these quantum numbers: a. n = 0, l = 0, ml = 0 b. n = 2, l = l, ml = 1, ms = 12 c. n = 3, ms = +12 d. n = 2, l = 2 e. n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0 Draw atomic orbital diagrams representing the ground-state electron configumtion for each of the following elements. a. Na b. Co c. Kr How many unpaired electrons are present in each element?For elements l36, there are two exceptions to the filling order as predicted from the periodic table. Draw the atomic orbital diagrams for the two exceptions and indicate how many unpaired electrons are present.The elements Si, Ga, As, Ge, Al, Cd, S, and Se are all used in the manufacture of various semiconductor devices. Write the expected electron configuration for these atoms.The elements Cu, O, La, Y, Ba, Tl, and Bi are all found in high-temperature ceramic superconductors. Write the expected electron configuration for these atoms.Write the expected electron configurations for each of the following atoms: Sc, Fe, P, Cs, Eu, Pt, Xe, Br.Write the expected electron configurations for each of the following atoms: Cl, Sb, Sr, W, Pb, Cf.The four most abundant elements by mass in the human body are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. These four elements make up about 96% of the human body. The next four most abundant elements are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium. and potassium. Write the expected ground-state electron configurations for these eight most abundant elements in the human body.The first-row transition metals from chromium through zinc all have some biologic function in the human body. How many unpaired electrons are present in each of these first-row transition metals in the ground state?Write the expected ground-state electron configuration for the following. a. the element with one unpaired 5p electron that forms a covalent compound with fluorine b. the (as yet undiscovered) alkaline earth metal after radium c. the noble gas with electrons occupying 4f orbitals d. the first-row transition metal with the most unpaired electrons Using only the periodic table inside the front cover of the text, write the expected ground-state electron configurations for a. the third element in Group 5A. b. element number 116. c. an element with three unpaired 5d electrons. d. the halogen with electrons in the 6p atomic orbitals.Given the valence electron orbital level diagram and the description, identify the element or ion. a. A ground state atom b. An atom in an excited state (assume two electrons occupy the 1s orbital) c. A ground state ion with a charge of 1 Identify the following elements. a. An excited state of this element has the electron configuration 1s22s22p53s1 b. The ground-state electron configuration is [Ne]3s23p4. c. An excited state of this element has the electron configuration [Kr]5s24d65p26s1. d. The ground-state electron configuration contains three unpaired 6p electrons.In the ground state of mercury, Hg, a. how many electrons occupy atomic orbitals with n = 3? b. how many electrons occupy d atomic orbitals? c. how many electrons occupy pz, atomic orbitals? d. how many electrons have spin "up" (ms=+12)?In the ground state of element 115, Uup, a. how many electrons have n = 5 as one of their quantum numbers? b. how many electrons have l = 3 as one of their quantum numbers? c. how many electrons have ml = 1 as one of their quantum numbers? d. how many electrons have ms = 12 as one of their quantum numbers?Give a possible set of values of the four quantum numbers for all the electrons in a boron atom and a nitrogen atom if each is in the ground state.Give a possible set of values of the four quantum numbers for the 4s and 3d electrons in titanium.Valence electrons are those electrons in the outermost principal quantum level (highest n level) of an atom in its ground state. Groups lA to 8A have from 1 to 8 valence electrons. For each group of the representative elements (1A-8A). give the number of valence electrons, the general valence electron configuration, a sample element in that group, and the specific valence electron configuration for that element.How many valence electrons do each of the following elements have, and what are the specific valence electrons for each element? a. Ca b.O c. element 117 d. In e. Ar f. Bi A certain oxygen atom has the electron configuration 1s22s22px22py2. How many unpaired electrons are present? Is this an excited state of oxygen? In going from this state to the ground state, would energy be released or absorbed?Which of the following electron configurations correspond to an excited state? Identify the atoms and write the ground-state electron configuration where appropriate. a. 1s22s23p1 b. 1s22s22p6 c. 1s22s22p43s1 d. [Ar]4s23d54p1 How many unpaired electrons are present in each of these species?Which of elements 1-36 have two unpaired electrons in the ground state?Which of elements 1-36 have one unpaired electron in the ground state?One bit of evidence that the quantum mechanical model is correct lies in the magnetic properties of matter. Atoms with unpaired electrons are attracted by magnetic fields and thus are said to exhibit pararamagnetism. The degree to which this effect is observed is directly related to the number of unpaired electrons present in the atom. Consider the ground-state electron configurations for Li, N, Ni, Te, Ba, and Hg. Which of these atoms would be expected to be paramagnetic, and how many unpaired electrons are present in each paramagnetic atom?Identify how many unpaired electrons are present in each of the followiog in the ground state: O, O+, O. Os, Zr, S, F, Ar.107E Arrange the following groups of atoms in order of increasing size. a. Rb, Na, Be b. Sr, Se, Ne c. Fe, P, O Arrange the atoms in Exercise 107 in order of increasing first ionization energy.Arrange the atoms in Exercise 108 in order of increasing first ionization energy.In each of the following sets, which atom or ion bas the smallest radius? a. H, He b. Cl, In, Se c. element 120, element 119, element 116 d. Nb, Zn, Si e. Na, Na, Na+In each of the following sets, which atom or ion has the smallest ionization energy? a. Ca, Sr, Ba b. K, Mn, Ga c. N, O, F d. S2, S, S2+ e. Cs, Ge, Ar 113E The first ionization energies of As and Se are 0.947 and 0.941 MJ/mol, respectively. Rationalize these values in terms of electron configurations.Rank the elements Be, B, C, N, and O in order of increasing first ionization energy. Explain your reasoning.117E The following graph plots the first, second, and third ionization energies for Mg, Al, and Si. Without referencing the text, which plot corresponds to which element? In one of the plots, there is a huge jump in energy between I2 and I3. unlike in the other two plots. Explain this phenomenon.119E For each of the following pairs of elements (Mg and K) (F and Cl) pick the atom with a. more favorable (more negative) electron affinity. b. higher ionization energy. c. larger size.The electron affinities of the elements from aluminum to chlorine are 44, 120, 74, 200.4, and 384.7 kJ/mol, respectively. Rationalize the trend in these values.In the second row of the periodic table, Be, N, and Ne all have positive (unfavorable) electron affinities, whereas the other second-row elements have negative (favorable) electron affinities. Rationalize why Be, N, and Ne have unfavorable electron affinities.123E Order the atoms in each of the following sets from the least negative electron affinity to the most. a. N, O, F b. Al, Si, P The electron affinity for sulfur is more negative than that for oxygen. How do you account for this?Which has the more negative electron affinity, the oxygen, atom or the O ion? Explain your answer.Write equations corresponding to the following: a. the fourth ionization energy of Se b. the electron affinity of S. c. the electron affinity of Fe3+ d. the ionization energy of Mg Using data from the text, determine the following values (justify your answer): a. the electron affinity of Mg2+ b. the ionization energy of CI. c. the electron affinity of Cl+ d. the ionization energy of Mg (electron affinity of Mg = 230 kJ/mol)Cesium was discovered in natural mineral waters in 1860 by R. W. Bunsen and G. R. Kirchhoff, using the spectroscope they invented in 1859. The name came from the Latin caesius ("sky blue") because of the prominent blue line observed for this element at 455.5 nm. Calculate the frequency and energy of a photon of this light.'The bright yellow light emitted by a sodium vapor lamp consists of two emission Lines at 589.0 and 589.6 nm. What are the frequency and the energy of a photon of light at each of these wavelengths? What are the energies in kJ/mol?Does the information on alkali metals in Table 2-8 of the text confirm the general periodic trends in ionization energy and atomic radius? Explain.132E 133E Complete and balance the equations for the following reactions. a. Cs(s) + H2O(l) b. Na(s) + Cl2(g)135AE A carbon-oxygen double bond in a certain organic molecule absorbs radiation that has a frequency of 6.0 1013 s1. a. What is the wavelength of this radiation? b. To what region of the spectrum does this radiation belong? c. What is the energy of this radiation per photon? d. A carbon-oxygen bond in a different molecule absorbs radiation with frequency equal to 5.4 1013 s1. Is this radiation more or less energetic?Mars is roughly 60 million km from the earth. How long does it take for a radio signal originating from the earth to reach Mars?Consider the following approximate visible light spectrum: Barium emits light in the visible region of the spectrum. If each photon of light emitted from barium has an energy of 3.59 1019 J, what color of visible light is emitted?One of the visible lines in the hydrogen emission spectrum corresponds to the n = 6 to n = 2 electronic transition. What color Jjght is this transition? See Exercise 138.140AE Are the following statements true for the hydrogen atom only, true for all atoms, or not true for any atoms? a. The principal quantum number completely determines the energy of a given electron. b. The angular momentum quantum number, l, determines the shapes of the atomic orbitals. c. The magnetic quantum number, ml, determines the direction that the atomic orbitals point in space.142AE The four most abundant elements by mass in the human body are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. These four elements make up about 96% of the human body. The next four most abundant elements are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium. Excluding hydrogen, which of these elements would have the smallest size? largest size? smallest first ionization energy? largest first ionization energy?Which of the following orbital designations are incorrect: 1s, 1p, 7d, 9s, 3f, 4f, 2d?The successive ionization energies for an unknown element are I1 = 896 kJ/mol I2 = 1752 kJ/mol I3 = 14,807 kJ/mol I4 = 17,948 kJ/mol To which family in the periodic table does the unknown element most likely belong?An unknown element is a nonmetal and has a valence electron configuration of ns2np4 a. How many valence electrons does this element have? b. What are some possible identities for this element? c. What is the formula of the compound this element would form with potassium? d. Would this element have a larger or smaller radius than barium? e. Would lhis element have a greater or smaller ionization energy than fluorine?While Mendeleev predicted the existence of several undiscovered elements. he did not predict the existence of the noble gases, the lanthanides, or the actinides. Propose reasons why Mendeleev was not able to predict the existence of the noble gases.Photosynthesis uses 660-nm light to convert CO2 and H2O into glucose and O2. Calculate the frequency of this light.Photogray lenses incorporate small amounts of silver chloride in the glass of the lens. When light hits the AgCl particles, me following reaction occurs: AgClhvAg+Cl The silver metal that is formed causes the lenses to darken. The energy change for this reaction is 3.10 102 kJ/mol. Assuming all this energy must be supplied by light, what is the maximum wavelength of light that can cause this reaction?It takes 476 kJ to remove 1 mole of electrons from the atoms at the surface of a solid metal. How much energy (in kJ) does it take to remove a single electron from an atom at the surface of this solid metal?151CWP 152CWP Determine the maximum number of electrons that can have each of the following designations: 2f, 2dxy, 3p, 5dyz, and 4p.Consider the ground state of arsenic, As. How many electrons have l = 1 as one of their quantum numbers? How many electrons have ml = 0? How many electrons have ml = + 1?Which of the following statements is(are) true? a. The 2s orbital in the hydrogen atom is larger than the 3s orbital also in the hydrogen atom. b. The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom has been found to be incorrect. c. The hydrogen atom has quantized energy levels. d. An orbital is the same as a Bohr orbit. e. The third energy level has three sublevels, the s, p, and d sublevels.Identify the following three elements. a. The ground-state electron configuration is [Kr]5s24d105p4. b. The ground-state electron configuration is [Ar]4s23d104p2. c. An excited state of this element has the electron configuration 1s22s22p43s1 157CWP 158CWP Three elements have the electron configurations 1s22s22P63s2, 1s22s22p63s23p4, and 1s22s22p63s23p64s2. The first ionization energies of these elements (not in the same order) are 0.590, 0.999, and 0.738 MJ/mol. The atomic radii are 104, 160, and 197 pm. Identify the three elements, and match the appropriate values of ionization energy and atomic radius to each configuration. Complete the following table with the correct information.One of the emission spectral lines for Be3+ has a wavelength of 253.4 nm for an electronic transition that begins in the state with n = 5. What is the principal quantum number of the lower-energy state corresponding to this emission? (Hint: The Bohr model can be applied to one-electron ions. Don't forget the Z factor: Z = nuclear charge = atomic number.)The figure below represents part of the emission spectrum for a one-electron ion in lhe gas phase. All the lines result from electronic transitions from excited states to the n = 3 state. (See Exercise 160.) a. What electronic transitions correspond to lines A and B? b. If the wavelength of line B is 142.5 nm, calculate the wavelength of line A.When lhe excited electron in a hydrogen atom falls from n = 5 to n = 2, a photon of blue light is emitted. If an excited electron in He+ falls from n = 4, to which energy level must it fall so that a similar blue light (as with the hydrogen) is emitted? Prove it. (See Exercise 160.)163CP For hydrogen atoms, the wave function for the state n = 3, l = 0, ml = 0 is 300=1813(1a0)3/2(2718+22)e where = r/a0 and a0 is the Bohr radius (5.29 1011 m). Calculate the position of the nodes for this wave function.The wave function for the 2pz, orbital in the hydrogen atom is 2pl=142(za0)3/2e/2cos where a0 is the value for the radius of the first Bohr orbit in meters (5.29 | 1011), is Z(r/a0), r is the value for the distance from the nucleus in meters, and is an angle. Calculate the value of 2pz2 at r = a0 for = 0 (z axis) and for = 90 (xy plane).Answer the following questions, assuming that ms, could have three values rather than two and that the rules for n, l, and ml are the normal ones. a. How many electrons would an orbital be able to hold? b. How many elements would the first and second periods in the periodic table contain? c. How many elements would be contained in the first transition metal series? d. How many electrons would the set of 4f orbitals be able to bold?Assume that we are in another universe with different physical laws. Electrons in this universe are described by, four quantum numbers with meanings similar to those we use. We will call these quantum numbers p, q, r, and s. The rules for these quantum numbers are as follows: P = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . q takes on positive odd integers and q p r takes on all even integer values from q to +q. (Zero is considered an even number.) s=+12or12 a. Sketch what the first four periods of lhe periodic table will look like in this universe. b. What are the atomic numbers of the first four elements you would expect to be least reactive? c. Give an example, using elements in the first four rows, of ionic compounds with the formulas XY, XY2, X2Y, XY3, and X2Y3. d. How many electrons can have p = 4, q = 3? e. How many electrons can have p = 3, q = 0, r = 0? f. How many electrons can have p = 6?Without looking at data in the text, sketch a qualitative graph of the third ionization energy versus atomic number for the elements Na through Ar, and explain your graph.The following numbers are the ratios of second ionization energy to first ionization energy: Na: 9.2 Mg: 2.0 Al: 3.1 Si: 2.0 P: 1.8 S: 2.3 Cl: 1.8 Ar: 1.8 Explain these relative numbers.We expect the atomic radius to increase going down a group in the periodic table. Can you suggest why the atomic radius of hafnium breaks this rule? (See data below.)The ionization energy for a 1s electron in a silver atom is 2.462 106 kJ/mol. a. Determine an approximate value for Zeff for the Ag 1s electron. Assume the Bohr model applies to the 1s electron. Zeff is the apparent nuclear charge experienced by the electrons. b. How does Zeff from part a compare to Z for Ag? Rationalize the relative numbers.Answer the following questions based on the given electron configurations and identify the elements. a. Arrange these atoms in order of increasing size:[Kr]5s24d105p6; [Kr]5s24d105p1;[Kr]5s24d105p3 b. Arrange these atoms in order of decreasing first ionization energy:[Ne]3s23p5; [Ar]4s23d104p3; [Ar]4s23d104p5 As the weapons officer aboard the Srarship Chemistry, it is your duty to configure a photon torpedo to remove an electron from the outer hull of an enemy vessel. You know that the work function (the binding energy of the electron) of the hull of the enemy ship is 7.52 1019 J. a. What wavelength does your photon torpedo need to be to eject an electron? b. You find an extra photon torpedo with a wavelength of 259 nm and fire it at the enemy vessel. Does this photon torpedo do any damage to the ship (does it eject an electron)? c. If the hull of the enemy vessel is made of the element with an electron configura tion of [Ar]4s13d10, what metal is this?Distinguish between the terms electronegativity versus electron affinity, covalent bond versus ionic bond, and pure covalent bond versus polar covalent bond. Characterize the types of bonds in terms of electronegativity difference. Energetically, why do ionic and covalcnt bonds form?2RQ When an element forms an anion, what happens to the radius? When an element forms a cation, what happens to the radius? Why? Define the term isoelectronic. When comparing size of ions. Which ion has the largest radius and which ion has the smallest radius in an isoelectronic series? Why?Define the term lattice energy. Why, energetically, do ionic compounds form? Fig. 3-8 illustrates the energy changes involved in the formation of MgO(s) and NaF(s). Why is the lattice energy of MgO(s) so different from that of NaF(s)? The magnesium oxide is composed of Mg2+ and O2 ions. Energetically, why does Mg2+O2 form and not Mg+O? Why doesnt Mg3+O3 form?Explain how bond energies can be used to estimate E for a reaction. Why is this an estimate of E? How do the product bond strengths compare to the reactant bond strengths for a reaction that releases energy? A reaction that gains energy? What is the relationship between the number of bonds between two atoms and bond strength? Bond length?6RQ 7RQ Explain the terms resonance and delocalized electrons. When a substance exhibits resonance, we say that none of the individual Lewis structures accurately portrays the bonding in the substance. Why do we draw resonance structures?Define formal charge and explain how to calculate it. What is the purpose of the formal charge? Organic compounds are composed mostly of carbon and hydrogen but also may have oxygen, nitrogen, and/or halogens in the formula. Formal charge arguments work very well for organic compounds when drawing the best Lewis structure. How do C, H, N, O, and Cl satisfy the octet rule in organic compounds so as to have a formula charge of zero?The compounds AlCl3, CrCl3, and ICl3 have similar formulas, yet each follows a different set of rules to name it. Name these compounds, and then compare and contrast the nomenclature rules used in each case.How would you name HBrO4, KIO3, NaBrO2, and HIO? Refer to Table 3-7 and the acid nomenclature discussion in the text.Explain the electronegativity trends across a row and down a column of the periodic table. Compare these trends with those of ionization energies and atomic radii. How are they related?The ionic compound AB is formed. The charges on the ions may be +1, 1; +2, 2; +3, 3; or even larger. What are the factors that determine the charge for an ion in an ionic compound?3ALQ The bond energy for a CH bond is about 413 kJ/mol in CH4 but 380 kJ/mol in CHBr3. Although these values are relatively close in magnitude, they are different. Explain why they are different. Does the fact that the bond energy is lower in CHBr3, make any sense? Why?5ALQ Which has the greater bond lengths: NO2 or NO3? Explain.7ALQ The second electron affinity values for both oxygen and sulfur are unfavorable (positive). Explain.What is meant by a chemical bond? Why do atoms form bonds with each other? Why do some elements exist as molecules in nature instead of as free atoms?Why are some bonds ionic and some covalent?11ALQ 12ALQ 13ALQ Why do we call Ba(NO3)2 barium nitrate, but we call Fe(NO3)2 iron(II) nitrate?15ALQ 16ALQ Compare and contrast the bonding found in the H2(g) and HF(g) molecules with that found in NaF(s).Describe the type of bonding that exists in the Cl2(g) molecule. How does this type of bonding differ from that found in the HCl(g) molecule? How is it similar?Some of the important properties of ionic compounds are as follows: i. low electrical conductivity as solids and high conductivity in solution or when molten ii. relatively high melting and boiling points iii. brittleness iv. solubility in polar solvents How does the concept of ionic bonding discussed in this chapter account for these properties?21Q Distinguish between the following terms. a. molecule versus ion b. covalent bonding versus ionic bonding c. molecule versus compound d. anion versus cation What is the electronegativity trend? Where does hydrogen fit into the electronegativity trend for the other elements in the periodic table?24Q In general the higher the charge on the ions in an ionic compound, the more favorable the lattice energy. Why do some stable ionic compounds have +1 charged ions even though +4, + 5, and +6 charged ions would have a more favorable lattice energy?Combustion reactions of fossil fuels provide most of the energy needs of the world. Why do the combustion reactions of fossil fuels produce so much energy?Which of the following statements is/are true? Correct the false statements. a. It is impossible to satisfy the octet rule for all atoms in XeF2. b. Because SF4 exists, OF4 should also exist, because oxygen is in the same family as sulfur. c. The bond in No+ should be stronger than the bond in No. d. As predicted from the two Lewis structures for ozone, one oxygen-oxygen bond is stronger than the other oxygen-oxygen bond.Three resonance structures can be drawn for CO2 Which resonance structure is best from a formal charge standpoint?

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