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All Textbook Solutions for Horizons: Exploring the Universe (MindTap Course List)

What is the largest dimension of which you have personal knowledge? Have you run a mile? Hiked 10 miles? Run a marathon?What is the difference between our Solar System, our galaxy, and the Universe?Why are light-years more convenient than miles, kilometres, or astronomical units for measuring certain distances?Why is it difficult to detect planets orbiting other stars?5RQ What is the difference between the Milky Way and the Milky Way Galaxy?What are the largest known structures in the Universe?8RQ How Do We Know? How does the scientific method give scientists a way to know about nature?You and three of your friends have won an all-expenses paid one-time-only round-trip first-class vacation to anywhere in the Universe, so long as the choice of destination is unanimous. Where do you want to go, and how do you convince your friends to agree?Think back to the last time you got a new phone and had to figure out how it worked. In what way did you employ the scientific method, maybe without even realizing that you did?The diameter of Earth across the equator is 7928 miles. If a mile equals 1.609 km. what is Earths diameter in kilometers? In centimeters?The diameter of the Moon across its equator is 3476 kilometers. If a kilometer equals 0.6214 miles, what is the Moon’s diameter in miles?One astronomical unit is about 1.50108 km. Explain why this is the same as 150106 km.Venus orbits 0.72 AU from the Sun. What is that distance in kilometers? (Hint: See Problem 3.)Light from the Sun takes 8 minutes to reach Earth. How long does it take to reach Mars?The Sun is almost 400 times farther from Earth than is the Moon. How long does light from the Moon take to reach Earth?If the speed of light is 3.00105 km/s. how many kilometers is 1 light-year? How many meters? (Note: One year contains 3.16107s )How long does it take light to cross the diameter of our Milky Way Galaxy?The nearest large galaxy to our n is about 2.5 million light-years away. How many meters is that?How many galaxies like our own would it take Laid edge-to-edge to reach the nearest galaxy? (Hint: See Problem 9.)In Figure 1-4, the division between daylight and darkness is at the right on the globe of Earth. How do you know this is the sunset line and not the sunrise line?2LTL 3LTL 4LTL Why have astronomers added modern constellations to the sky?What is the difference between asterism d a constellation? Give some examples.What characteristic do starts in a constellation or asterism share?Do people from other cultures on Earth see the same stars, constellations, and asterisms that you see?5RQ 6RQ What does the word apparent mean in apparent visual magnitude?In what ways is the celestial sphere a scientific model?Why do astronomers use the word on to describe angles on the sky rather than angles in the sky?Earth did not rotate, could you define the celestial poles and celestial equator?Where would you go on Earth if you wanted to be able to see both the north celestial pole and the south celestial pole at the same time?12RQ Explain h to make a simple astronomical observation that would determine your latitude.14. Why does the number of circumpolar constellations depend on the latitude of the observer?How could you detect Earths precession t examining star chats from ancient Egypt?How Do We know? How can a scientific model be useful if it isn’t a correct description of nature?Using stars from one or more of the “official” constellations, create an asterism that is significant to the culture of your school.2DQ 1P If two stars differ by 8.6 magnitudes, what is their flux ration?3P By what factor is sunlight brighter than moonlight? (Hint: See Figure 2.6 and Table 2-1.)If you are at a latitude of 35° north of Earths equator, what is the angular distance from the northern horizon up to the north celestial pole? From the southern horizon down to the south celestial pole?1LTL 2LTL What is the difference between the daily and annual motions of the Sun?If Earth did not rotate, could you still define the ecliptic? Why or why not?What would the seasons be like if Earth were tipped 350 instead of 23.4°? What would they be like if Earth’s axis were perpendicular to its orbit?Why are the seasons reversed in the Southern Hemisphere relative to the Northern Hemisphere?5RQ Do the phases of the Moon look the same from every place on Earth, or is the Moon full at different times as seen from different locations?What phase would Earth be in if you were on the Moon when the Moon was full? At first quarter? At waning crescent?Why have most people seen a total lunar eclipse, while few have seen a total solar eclipse?Why isn’t there an eclipse at every new moon and at every full moon?Why is the Moon red during a total lunar eclipse?Why should the eccentricity of Earth’s orbit make winter in the Northern Hemisphere different from winter in the Southern Hemisphere?12RQ 13RQ How Do We know? Why must a scientific argument dealing with some aspect of nature include all of the evidence?You are packing for a vacation on a planet orbiting another star that is much like the Sun. Why might you want some information about the planets orbit size and axis tilt to know what to pack?You happen to visit the Moon when some people on Earth see a total solar eclipse. Who has a better experience of this event, you or the friends you left behind back on Earth? Why?Given that Earth is about 4.6 billion (4.6109) years old, how many precessional cycles have occurred?Identify the phases of the Moon if on March 20 the Moon were located at the position the Sun is located on: (a) March 20, (b) September 22, (c) June 22, and (d) December 21.Identify the phases of the Moon if at sunset in the Northern Hemisphere the Moon were (a) near the eastern horizon, (b) high in the south, (c) in the southeast, (d) in the southwest.4P Draw a diagram showing Earth, the Moon, and shadows during (a) a total solar eclipse, (b) a total lunar eclipse, (c) a partial lunar eclipse, (d) an annular eclipse.Phobos, one of the moons of Mars, is about 25 km in diameter and orbits about 6000 km above the surface of the planet. What is the angular diameter of Phobos as seen from Mars? (Hint: See Reasoning with Numbers 3-1.)A total eclipse of the Sun was visible from Canada on July 10, 1972. When did the next eclipse with the same Sun-Moon-Earth geometry occur? From what part of Earth was it total?8P The cartoon in Figure UN 3-4 shows a crescent moon. Explain why the Moon could never look this way.The photo in Figure UN 3-5 shows the annular eclipse of May 30, 1984. How is it different from the annular eclipse shown in Figure 3-11? Why do you suppose it is different?Why did Greek astronomers conclude that the heavens were made up of perfect crystalline spheres moving at constant speeds?Why did classical astronomers conclude that Earth had to be motionless?How did the Ptolemaic model explain retrograde motion?In what ways were the models of Ptolemy and Copernicus similar?Why did the Copernican hypothesis win gradual acceptance?Why is it difficult for scientists to replace an old paradigm with a new paradigm?Why did Tycho Brahe expect the new star of 1572 to show parallax? Why was the lack of parallax evidence against the Ptolemaic model?How was Tycho’s model of the Universe similar to the Ptolemaic model? How did it resemble the Copernican model?Explain how Kapler’s lows contradict uniform circular motion.What is the difference between a hypothesis , theory, and a law?How did The Alfonsine Tables, The Prutenic Tables, and The Rudolphine Tables differ?Review Galileo’s telescopic discoveries and explain why they supported the Copernican model and contradicted the Ptolemaic model.Galileo was condemned by the Inquisition, but Kepler, also a Copernican, was not. Why not?How do Newton’s laws lead you to conclude that gravitation has to be universal?Explain why you might describe the orbital motion of the Moon with the statement, “The Moon is falling.”16RQ How Do We know? How would you respond to someone who said, about biological evolution, “Oh, that’s only a theory.?18RQ How Do We Know? Why is it important that a hypothesis make testable predictions?Science historian Thomas Kuhn has said that De Revolutionibus was a revolution-making book but not a revolutionary book. How was that book in some ways both classical and conservative?Many historians suspect that Galileo offended Pope Urban VIII by putting the pope’s favorite argument into the mouth of Simplicio. How is the pope’s argument a challenge to the principle of cause and effect?3DQ If you lived on Mars, which planets would describe retrograde loops? Which would never be visible as crescent phases?Galileo’s telescope showed him that Venus has a large angular diameter (61 arc seconds) when it is a crescent and a small angular diameter (10 arc seconds) when it is nearly full. Use the small-angle formula to find the ratio of its maximum distance to its minim um distance. Is this ratio compatible with the Ptolemaic shown on the right-hand page of Concept Art 4A? (Hint: See Reasoning with Numbers 3-1.)Galileo’s telescopes were not of high quality by modern standards. He was able to see the moons of Jupiter, but he never reported seeing features on Mars. Use the small-angle formula to find the maximum angular diameter of Mars when it is closest to Earth. How does that compare with the maximum diameter of Jupiter? (Note: Useful data can be found in Appendix Table A-10.)If a planet had an average distance from the Sun of 10 AU, what would its orbital period be?If a space probe were sent into an orbit around the Sun that brought it as close as 0.5 AU to the Sun and as far away as 5.5 AU, what would its orbital period be?Neptune orbits the Sun with a period of 164.8 years. What is its average distance from the Sun?Venus’s average distance from the Sun is 0.72 AU and Saturn’s is 9.54 AU. Calculate the circular orbital velocity of Venus and Saturn around the Sun. (Notes: The mass of the Sun is 1.991030 kg. An AU is 1.501011 m.)The circular velocity of Earth around the Sun is about 30 km/s. Are the relative sizes of the velocity arrows for Venus and Saturn correct in Figure 4-3? (Hint: See Problem 7.)What is the orbital velocity of an Earth satellite 42,230 km from Earth’s center? How long does it take to circle its orbit once?1LTL 2LTL Why is it a little bit misleading to say that this astronaut is weightless (see Figure UN 4-7)?4LTL Mercury’s orbit hardly deviates from a circle, but you can tell that it is not a circle with just a glance at Figure 4-7. What gives it away? (Hint: Consider the location of the Sun.)1RQ 2RQ 3RQ 4RQ 5RQ 6RQ 7RQ 8RQ 9RQ 10RQ 11RQ 12RQ 13RQ 14RQ 1DQ Consider the “atmospheric windows” of Earth’s atmosphere (Figure 5-2b). How do these match against the biological responses of animals and plants here on Earth? What do you think is the reason hr that’The thickness of the plastic in plastic bags is about 0.001 mm. How many wavelengths of red light is that? (Hint: You can estimate a typical wavelength for red light by looking at Figure S-2a.)What is the wavelength of radio waves transmitted by a radio station with a frequency of 100 million cycles per second?3P 4P 5P 6P H does the resolving power of the 5-rn telescope on Mount Palomar near San Diego compare with that of the 2.5-rn Hubble Space Telescope? Why does the HST generally still outperform the Palomar 5-rn telescope?If you build a telescope with a focal length of 1.3 m, what focal length does the eyepiece need to give a magnification of 100 times?9P 10P 1LTL The star images in the photo in Figure UN 5-4 are tiny disks, but the diameter of these disks is not related to the diameter of the stars. Explain why the telescope cast resolve the diameter of the stars. What does cause the apparent diameters of the stars?The X-ray image in Figure UN 5-5 shows the remains of an exploded star. Explain why images recorded by telescopes in space are often displayed in representational (“false”) color rather than in the “colors” (wavelengths) received by the telescope.1RQ 2RQ 3RQ 4RQ 5RQ 6RQ 7RQ 8RQ 9RQ 10RQ 11RQ How Do We Know? How is the world you see around you determined by a world you cannot see?1DQ 2DQ 1P 2P 3P 4P If one star has a temperature of 6000 K and another star has a temperature of 7000 K, h much more energy per second will the hotter star radiate from each square meter of its surface?6P 7P 8P 1LTL 2LTL 3LTL 4LTL 1RQ What evidence can you give that granulation is caused by convection?3RQ 4RQ 5RQ 6RQ 7RQ 8RQ 9RQ 10RQ 11RQ How can solar flares affect Earth?13RQ 14RQ 15RQ 16RQ 17RQ 18RQ Explain why the presence of spectral lines of a given element in the solar spectrum tells you that element is present in the Sun, but the absence of the lines would not necessarily mean the element is absent from the Sun.What energy sources on Earth cannot be thought of as stored sunlight?What would the spectrum of an auroral display look like? Why?4DQ The radius of the Sun is 0.7 million km. Examine Figure 7-3 to estimate the thickness of the chromosphere. What fraction of the Sun’s radius is taken up by the chromosphere?2P 3P If a sunspot has a temperature of 4200 K and the average solar photosphere has a temperature of 5800 K, how many times brighter is a square meter of the photosphere compared to a square meter of the sunspot? (Hint: Use the Stefan-Boltzmann law in Reasoning with Numbers 6-1.)How much energy is produced when the Sun converts 1 kg of mass into energy?6P 7P 8P The United States consumes about 2.51019 J of energy in all forms in a year. How many years could you run the United States on the energy released by the solar flare in Problem 8?10P 1LTL 2LTL 3LTL 1RQ Why was the Hipparcos satellite able to make more accurate parallax measurements than ground-based telescopes?3RQ 4RQ 5RQ 6RQ 7RQ 8RQ 9RQ 10RQ 11RQ 12RQ 13RQ 14RQ 15RQ 16RQ 17RQ 18RQ 19RQ How Do We know? In what way does accumulation of large amounts of basic scientific data help later scientists?1DQ Can you think of classification systems used to simplify what would otherwise be complex measurements? Consider foods, movies, cars, grades, and clothes.3DQ 1P 2P 3P 4P 5P 6P 7P 8P 9P 10P 11P 12P 13P 1LTL 2LTL 1RQ Why evidence can you cite that the interstellar medium contains both gas and dust?3RQ 4RQ 5RQ 6RQ 7RQ 8RQ 9RQ 10RQ 11RQ 12RQ How does the CNO cycle differ from the proton-proton chain? How is it similar?14RQ Step-by-step, explain how energy flows from the center of the Sun to Earth.16RQ 17RQ 18RQ 19RQ 20RQ 1DQ What is your favorite home-cooked meal? In terms of the three types of energy transport, how w it cooked?3DQ How does hydrostatic equilibrium relate to hot-air ballooning?1P 2P 3P 4P 5P 6P 7P 8P 9P 10P If a protostellar disk is 200 AU in radius and the disk plus the forming star together contain 2 solar masses, what is the orbital speed at the outer edge of the disk in kilometers per second? (Hint: See the formula for circular orbital velocity in Reasoning with Numbers 4-1.)12P 13P 14P H much energy is produced when the CNO cycle converts 1 kg of mass into energy? (Hint: Is your answer the same, or different, if the mass is fused by the proton-proton chain?)16P 1LTL 2LTL Why does helium fusion require a higher temperature than hydrogen fusion?2RQ 3RQ 4RQ 5RQ 6RQ 7RQ 8RQ 9RQ 10RQ 11RQ How can you explain the Algol paradox?13RQ 14RQ 15RQ 16RQ 1DQ 2DQ

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