Cortical bone

percutaneous pedicle screw technique[14]. Sterba et al[15] found that the screw inserted vertically without convergence showed greater pullout load than traditionally technique. Santoni et al[16] report the cortical bone trajectory (CBT) in 2009, which meant a more medial-to-lateral directed. The cortical bone trajectory (CBT) technique is a theoretical benefit to the fixation of osteoporotic vertebrae which involves maximizing the thread contact with

settlement of Çatalhöyük. One of the research projects that occurred in that location is the investigation of cortical bone loss and fracture patterns in the Neolithic community using radiogrammetry. The main focus of this study is an examination of the widely used calculation that expresses second metacarpal cortical bone values, followed by an examination of age and sex-related patterns of cortical bone loss and skeletal fragility fracture in a Neolithic archaeological skeletal sample from Çatalhöyük, Turkey

that the bones of the rats will not develop differently due to them weighing more than normal. The rats

muscular system. At the cellular level, bone provides a reservoir of growth factors and cytokines, maintains the acid-base balance and mineral homeostasis, and is the site of hematopoeisis. Like other connective tissue, bone has both a cellular and an extracellular matrix component. The matrix is made up of collagen fibers and noncollagenous proteins, with type I collagen accounting for ~90% of total protein, and the noncollagenous osteocalcin, osteopontin, and bone sialoprotein, and others making up

from the bones, which can result in fractures" (Whitney & Rolfes, 2013, p. 349). There are several common risk factors for developing osteoporosis, which lead to the condition of reduced bone density. During the later years, osteoporosis becomes apparent but develops a lot earlier without any warning. The bone has two compartments, which include the cortical bone and the trabecular bone. The cortical bone is the very dense bone tissue that forms the outer shell, whereas the trabecular bone is the

period of growth, due to disorders in absorption, utilization or lack of vitamin D and calcium. The bone becomes bland, this is a consequence of deficit of calcium and phosphate is eliminated via the renal system due to lack of vitamin D (Dorland, 1982). Second is osteodystrophy, which is a type of bone atrophy with a lot of osteoclastic (destruction of bone) activity and is a substitution of bone by fibrous tissue, typical of hyperparathyroidism or osteofibrosis (Pedro-Pons 1972). Last is Osteoporosis

age-related disease of the skeletal system characterized by both low bone mass and bone structural degeneration (Nunes, 2011). Understanding osteoporosis is important because it is continues to be overlooked and undertreated, causing high numbers of bone fractures each year –in the elderly, these bone fractures can be debilitating or even life threatening (Eastell, 2009). Osteoporosis manifests when an imbalance between bone resorption and bone rebuilding occurs – this is due to changes in osteoclast and

of bone ossification. Last is Osteoporosis, which forms part of the endocrine and metabolic diseases. It is a skeletal condition that interferes with the captation of proteins and carbohydrates (Manual). Figure 1. Osteoporosis is a generalized, progressive diminution of bone tissue mass per unit volume, causing skeletal weakness, even though the ratio of mineral to organic elements is unchanged in the remaining morphologically normal bone. Histologically there is a reduction in cortical thickness

Osteocytes are the most abundant cell type in human bones and play a fundamental role in bone homeostasis. Representing 95% of all mature bone cells and have the longest lifespan in all bone cells, up to decades, osteocytes are the key to bone integrity1. They are initially derived from osteoblasts, residing within bones and take part in bone metabolism through excessive communication with other bone cell populations, including osteoblasts, osteoclasts and most importantly, osteocyte progenitors

The human body tissues fall into four major radiodensities; air which appears black, fat which appears gray/black, water which appears gray, and bone which appears white (McKinnis, 2014; Smith, n.d.). Air has the least radiodensity of all body structures, therefore is the most radiolucent on a radiograph (McKinnis, 2014; Lowe, n.d.; Stokell, n.d.). The lucency of air provides contrast to allow visualization of various structures, such as the heart and great vessels outlined against the air-filled