Adverse Birth Outcomes

Yet, these preterm births and the deaths can be stopped and prevented with established, low cost involvements. There is a prominent, noticeable and

Socioeconomic factors include “poverty, marginal employment, low incomes, segregated living conditions, and inadequate education” (Cockerham, 2015). These factors are more common among blacks than whites and are known to cause poor health. Studies have shown that black women are more prone to be exposed to psychosocial stress from poverty and low-paying jobs, which plays an important role in triggering labor in pregnant women. With the elevated buildup of stress hormones, it can cause the body to trigger early labor and other pregnancy problems. Leading to higher rates of infant

In addition to infant mortality, infant survivors of LBW and preterm delivery, often experience greater problems in childhood and adulthood. Some of these experiences include higher rates of respiratory illness, impaired growth, cognitive and emotional deficiencies, lower academic achievement and risk of hypertension, diabetes and mental health issues (Behrman and Butler, 2007, Conley and Bennett, 2000 and Raikkonen et al., 2007). The Center for Disease Control (CDC) report that African American pregnancies are at an elevated risk for poor birth outcomes. Figure 1. shows national birth outcomes for African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian pregnancies, as reported by the CDC in 2013:

associations in a pathway model connecting race-based discrimination, stress, and negative preterm birth outcomes in African American women.

Death and illnesses among women, infant, and child are preventable. In pregnancy, existing health risks can distinguish or prevent any future health problems for women and their children. According to U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2016), some high-risk factors that may consider are the following: hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, depression, genetic conditions, sexually transmitted diseases, tobacco and alcohol abuse, inadequate nutrition and unhealthy weight. By having this government Healthy 2020 initiative, factors that can affect the pregnancy and childbirth such as poverty,

Poverty stricken women are forced to live in communities with high crime and drug activity, increased unemployment and poor education school system. These adversities affect African American women at larger degrees throughout her lifetime. African American women are more likely to become a teen mother compared to other groups of women (Ukockis, 2016). This will place her at risks for economic hardships and physical, mental and emotional abuse.

Multiple studies have been conducted on infant mortality and preterm birth in the United States. Many have identified how the rate of infant mortality and preterm birth is twice as high among African Americans women than White American women in the United States.(Orr et. al,2012; Dole et al,2004;Collins,2002) some studies convey socioeconomic as a major factor of preterm birth among African American’s. As Kleinman conveys in Racial differences in low birthweight: Trendsand risk factors when socioeconomic status increases the risk of giving birth to an infant of low birthweight decreases. On the other hand, there are some studies that convey high differences of preterm birth between black and white women of equal socioeconomic status.(Dole et

Describe the impact of extremely low birth weight babies on family and society (short and long term, including economic considerations, ongoing care considerations, and comorbidities associated with prematurity).

In the United States, the process of childbirth is far more dangerous for African American women than it is for White women. For African American women, the path to a healthy birth is riddled with barriers. There are many health disparities between the two races. African American women face much higher low-birth and infant mortality rates; the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has published that although infant mortality rates in the U.S. have dropped by over 10% in the past ten years, a large gap continues to exist between the health of the races during the entire childbirth process. (World Health Organization, 2010) In the United States, Black infants are more than twice as likely to die within the first year of life as a White infant, and this disparity has not seen advancements in the last century. Many of these deaths can be attributed to low birth weight, and preterm birth among black infants.

-Race or ethnicity: Historically, minority populations in the United States have had higher rates of preterm delivery. In 2007, non-Hispanic White women accounted for the lowest number of preterm births in the United States, accounting for only 11.5% of all preterm births (MacDorman, 2011). In contrast, non-Hispanic Blacks, Puerto Ricans, American Indians and Hispanic women had preterm birth levels of 18.3%, 14.5%, 13.9% and 12.3% respectively (MacDorman, 2011). The Asian minority had the lowest risk at 10.9% (MacDorman, 2011). Some studies have attributed such significant differences to racial disparities in resources and health care (Dominguez, 2008; Vanderbilt & Wright, 2013). However, other studies such as Menon’s et al, which looked at differences in White versus Black women, suggest that racial disparities in preterm birth may

One of the most persisting health disparities is the birth outcomes between African Americans and White Americans. A significant portion in infant mortality is the increase of low birth weight, and preterm birth among black infants. The socially and economically disadvantaged population affects the maternal and child health outcomes. “The life course perspective “is the women’s life -course experiences that links to the maternal health and pregnancy outcome. It is used to understand how transitions and trajectories factors impact one’s life. The cumulative pathway mechanism how stress, exposures to the physical and the social environment in different life stages that accumulates over time affect health and causes dysfunction. Racial

The horrifying pregnancy mortality rates and health disparities that exist between races are striking as well as terrifying to me. Although I was aware of the existence of health disparities, I was still taken back by the discrepancies in pregnancy-related mortality ratios of “12.7 deaths per 100,000 live births” in white women, to “43.5 deaths per 100,000 live births” in black women (CDC, n.d). Through root cause analyses, as well as reflection on the analogy provided in Levels of Racism: A Theoretic Framework and a Gardener’s Tale, it is clear that in order to effectively address and make positive change in the aforementioned ratios, we must focus on correcting institutionalized racism, personally mediated racism and internalized racism.

In line with previous studies [9, 10]; we found out that maternal socioeconomic position was significantly associated with LBW. Mothers of Low SES (the poorest household wealth, no formal education, and no formal occupation) were more likely to give birth to LBW babies. The CSDH defines structural determinants of health as those conditions that generate social stratification in society. Consequently, social stratification gives rise to an unequal distribution of the social determinants of health, including material living and working conditions and psychosocial circumstances as well as behavioral and biological risk factors [8].

Preterm Birth is one of the most important and interesting topics to any prospective parent. One of the reasons is because it happens so often and unexpectedly. Preterm Birth has become a personal interest in research simply because it has made a tremendous impact in my life. Having a Preterm Birth has taught me lots of things, such as, to grow as a person and as a mother, to see things from a different perspective, to get up, continue with my life, and perhaps to learn how to say “good bye” to a little one without even saying “hello.” For all the reasons above, there are some questions I would like to address: Why do preterm births happen and how can it be prevented? What kind of help is offered to parents and family members who go through the process of having a preterm birth? How effective and relevant is that help?

Prenatal care is widely accepted as an important element in improving pregnancy outcome. (Gorrie, McKinney, Murray, 1998). Prenatal care is defined as care of a pregnant woman during the time in the maternity cycle that begins with conception and ends with the onset of labor. A medical, surgical, gynecologic, obstretic, social and family history is taken (Mosby's Medical, Nursing, and Allied Health Dictionary, 1998). It is important for a pregnant woman as well as our society to know that everything that you do has an effect on your baby. Because so many women opt not to receive the benefits of prenatal care, our society sees the ramification, which include a variety of complications primarily