This study detected the effects of maternal carbamazepine (CBZ) on the fetal neuroendocrine-cytokines axis. 25 or 50 mg/kg of CBZ was intraperitoneally administrated from gestation day (GD) 1 to 20. Compared to control, these treatments elicited a pronounced hypothyroidism at GD 20 with a decrease in the maternofetal thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) levels, and an increase in the maternofetal thyrotropin (TSH) level. This resulted in a significant reduction in the fetal serum growth hormone (GH), interferon-γ (IFNγ), interleukins (IL-2 & 4) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels, and elevation in the fetal serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ), and interleukins (IL-1β & 17) levels at embryonic day (ED) 20 with effective dosage dependent manners. In both treated groups, the cellular fragmentations, distortions, hyperemia, and vacuolation were observed in their cerebellum. Finally, the maternofetal hypothyroidism by CBZ might cue the developmental violation of the neuroendocrine-cytokines axis.
Keywords: Carbamazepine, Thyroid hormones, Cytokines, Cerebellum, Fetus, Pregnant rats
Introduction
Thyroid hormones (THs) are principal for the development of all biological tissues (Ahmed, 2016a,b; Campo Verde Arboccó et al., 2016; Raymaekers et al., 2016; Zevenbergen et al., 2016). Several investigations have displayed that exposure to antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) might disturb the growth (Liguori and Cianfarani, 2009; Farmen et al.,
Laboratory Report/ Miranda Tefft/ Homeostatic Imbalances of Thyroid Function/ Aline Potvin/ 11.18.2014/ Page [2] of [3]
3. The subject who was diagnosed with hyperthyroidism was given propylthiouracil (prevents Thyroxine production and conversion
TSH not only stimulates the thyroid gland to churn out more hormones. If in excess, can cause overwhelming cell growth and division to result in goiter.
The fetus is at greatest risk during the first trimester. This is the time when the cells differentiate and develop into limbs and organs. Drug use during this time poses a risk to organ development. The second and third trimesters involve mauration of the developing body parts. The risk of spontaneous abortion in the second trimester and of premature birth in the third are increased with drug use. Because the brain and nervous system are developing throughout the pregnancy, the nervous system is vulnerable to damage at any
The prenatal period is when quick changes in the fetal organs are vulnerable to organizing change and stability but also building internal working system to trigger emotional responses (McEwen et al. 2013). It is a critical time for brain development and the PFC (McEwen et al. 2013). It exposes a selection of long -term modifications on brain development and behaviour (Entringer et al. 2009). Prenatal exposure to stress affects hormones in the body including the physiology and anatomy that relate to increasing drug levels, cortical communication and more (Entringer et al. 2009). Fetal stress is any event that interrupts a fetal process in stability in the body. (Entringer et al. 2009). During pregnancy, maternal stress impends the fetal nervous system and shortens the length of maturation due to many issues and concerns affecting the mother (Entringer et al. 2009). During pregnancy, maternal psychosocial stress threatens the fetal nervous system and contracts the length of gestation (Entringer et al. 2009). High levels of placental corticotrophin- releasing hormone
Scientific advancements are constantly changing. There are many positive changes that are affecting people’s lives. The new food pyramid, medical reporting, and different labeling of taxonomy classes are making differences.
The thyroid gland is the gland that makes and stores hormones that help regulate the heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and metabolism. Thyroid hormones are essential for the function of every cell in the body. They help regulate growth and the rate of chemical reactions in the body. Thyroid hormones also help children grow and develop. The thyroid gland is located in the lower part of the neck, below the Adam's apple, wrapped around the trachea. It has the shape of a butterfly with two lobes attached to one another by a middle part called the isthmus. The thyroid uses iodine, a mineral found in some foods and in iodized salt, to make its hormones. The two most important thyroid hormones are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine
The thyroid gland is found in the front of the neck and produces two main hormones. The hormones are called thuroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3). Together these hormones regulate the body’s metabolism by increasing energy use in cells, regulate growth and development, help to maintain body temperature and aid in oxygen consumption. These two hormones are regulated by hormones produced by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The hypothalamus senses changes in body’s metabolic rate and releases a hormone known as thyropin-releasing hormone (TRH). This hormone then flows through connecting vessels to the pituitary gland which signals it to release another hormone. This hormone is known as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH then makes
There are some factors that may influence the health and development. Smoking can affect the babies’ oxygen in the womb which could affect the growth and development, low birth weight, high risk of prematurely (birth before week’s gestation), asthma and may lead to cot death. Genetic factors – when the baby has condition, which means that it has been passed down to them by one of their parents. Infections and medical conditions – some babies have medical condition which may affect them during their childhood. This could lead the babies having low self-esteem, feeling distress, not making friends and effect their development. Alcohol – having alcohol during pregnancy can cause Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). This could lead
The third environmental factor that is said to cause ASD is the use of antidepressants during pregnancy. This study included 298 children with ASD and 1507 children without ASD as the control group from Northern California using the Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program (KPNC). This focused on the years of 1995 to 1999 and babies that were born at KPNC. Mothers during the 3 months before the last menstrual period (LMP) were given one of 3 different antidepressant medications. The first medication contained SSRI’s, next medication contained serotonin-noradrenergic-reuptake inhibitors and other dual-action antidepressants, the last type of antidepressant which contains hydrochloride is tricyclic. Starting from preconception all the way to the delivery of the child the mothers were given antidepressant medication for 4 times over a one year time frame.
Even though there are many studies that highlight the damaging effects of maternal alcohol use on a fetus in utero, there are a multitude of other substances that are used by pregnant mothers that have similar and even, in some cases, more extreme repercussions such as marijuana, heroin, and cocaine. When speaking about pregnancy and drug use, the most common drug that comes to mind is alcohol. During 12 years of schooling, most people are exposed, at one point or another, to the idea of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and the detrimental effects of alcohol on a fetus in utero. The effects of maternal use of the aforementioned illicit drugs is less studied, partially because they are used less frequently. It is important, however, that as a population, we become more educated about these drugs and the potentially life threatening outcomes for babies in utero.
The main argument being made is that some antidepressants can cause birth defects, the article provides us with a study to help prove this. The study looked at data on more than 38,000 women who had given birth in 1997-2009 and compared what the mother’s antidepressants are and the child’s number of birth defects (Neighmond, 2015). One concept or idea that ties into child development is epigenetics, where the environment influences or alters gene expression (Berk, 2018), which makes me wonder if in some cases the child being exposed to an environment of a depressed mother, it may cause some genes to alter. This also ties into the concept of passive gene environment, where parents who are genetically related to the child set up the environment
Therefore, planned pregnancy is a huge key factor in preventing birth defects, because often times birth defects develop even before women might know they are pregnant. Because women don’t know they are pregnant, they may consume alcohol, causing harm to their babies. Smoking causes harm to infants before, during, and after pregnancies. Even in the womb nicotine, carbon monoxide, and many other poisons women inhale from cigarettes are carried through their bloodstream. Smoking while pregnant causes many developmental issues including birth defects, lung problems, stunted growth, increase in babies heart rates, low birth weight, or result in stillbirths. However, there are many other agents known to cause these developmental defects. For example, drugs and other medications such as; thalidomide, isotretinoin, valproic acid, methotrexate, and mycophenolate mofetil are also known to cause the same birth defects (Simeone, et al., 2015). Putting healthy supplements, unlike these types of drugs into individuals systems when pregnant can help prevent infant
1. Identify specific neurodevelopmental processes regulated by thyroid hormone (TH) and determine whether these differ significantly between species. Primary rat (neurospheres and dissociated cortical cultures) and human (neurospheres and neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells [iPSCs]) cultures will be used to determine which early (neural precursor cell [NPC] proliferation, migration and differentiation] and late (axonal and dendritic outgrowth, synaptogenesis, network formation) neurodevelopmental processes
The central effects of hyperthyroidism are most pronounced in development. Cerebral circulation and oxygen consumption elevate. "In hyperthyroidism, Beta-adrenergic binding sites in the cerebral cortex increases and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) binding sites are decreases." (Bucurescu,2014). Brain levels of serotonin, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and substance P are altered. Native pain sensitivity and number of opiate receptors are increases. Thyroid hormones affect myelination, therefore increased levels lead to oxidative damage to the myelin membrane and/or the oligodendroglial cells. The neurological manifestation is primarily due to the effect of thyroid hormones on other neurotransmitters, hormones, and generalized increased basal metabolic rate. Some of the neurological symptoms are: