Witches, Sorcerers, And Shamans

At the end of the Middle Ages, European societies underwent economic, political, social and religious changes. The apocalypse of witch hunts coincided with a wave of Christian messianism against social and economic injustice. The witches were needed to focus the anger of people, at the same time, protecting the patriots (Harris 2007: 198-204). The process of witchcraft allowed the explanation of social inequality to occur through supernatural phenomena. The condemnation of the deaths of the lower classes, especially women stands for social, not religious, basis of the process of witchcraft (Harris 2007:

In the mid-seventeenth century there was a great increase in the number of witchcraft accusations, more precisely in a little country located in southern Europe called Malta. At this time in Europe there was a system of tribunals, a court of justice, created by the Catholic Church called the Roman Inquisition (Carmel. 1993: 316-317). According to Caramel Cassar, the purpose of these tribunals at first was to keep the Catholic faith alive and to eliminate the spread of the Protestant faith (Carmel. 1993: 316-317). Unfortunately at the start of the seventeenth century the Catholic Church had a bigger

Most observers now agree that witches in the villages and towns of the late Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century New England tended to be poor. They were usually not the poorest women in the community, but the moderately poor. Karlsen tries to show that a woman who was vulnerable was most likely to be accused of being a witch. Even women who had gained wealth because of the death of a husband were prime candidates.

The large-scale witch-hunts that occurred from 1638 to 1651 gathered momentum via major happenings in the political, societal, and religious domains developing at the time. Individuals who had either political, religious or economic power in society, also known as elites, together had absolute control over the pursuit and prosecution of individuals who partook in witchcraft. The clergy played a crucial role in the witchcraft prosecutions and were slower than the state and localities to desert their beliefs in the reality of witches as the prosecution of witchcraft was, in their eyes, an effective tool to eradicate social deviance. Though local authorities and the Parliament did contribute to the witch-hunts significantly, without the kirk of Scotland declaring and encouraging this sanction on witchcraft, both other parties would not have taken the actions they ultimately did. This essay will provide a brief description of events that took place from 1638 to 1651 and then utilize evidence from a multitude of sources to argue that the religious elites were the most influential of these forces during the witchcraft prosecutions that occurred in the 1640s.

For more than two hundred years, individuals were persecuted as witches throughout the continent of Europe, even though the witch hunt was concentrated on Southwestern Germany, Switzerland, England, Scotland, Poland, and parts of France. In a collective frenzy. witches were sought, identified, arrested, mostly tortured, and tried for a variety of reasons. The total number of witches tried exceeded 100,000 people. This essay is supposed to identify three major reasons for the witch craze in sixteenth and seventeenth century Europe.

From the 1400’s to the 1800’s, around forty thousand individuals were executed for witchcraft, most of which occurred throughout central Europe. Constant religious and political upheaval caused elites to attempt to harness control over populations, which led to multiple laws being passed in regards to witchcraft. Torture was allowed and women and children were called to testify in the court room. Individuals who were seen to be outcasts on the outer edge of society were immediately targeted and easily suspected of sorcery. The Trial of Tempel Anneke: Records of Witchcraft Trial in Brunswick, Germany, 1663 gives its readers an inside perspective of the many different attitudes that existed towards witchcraft at the time. Because 17th century Brunswick townspeople were driven by deep Christian beliefs, they greatly feared all forms of magic, thinking them to come from the devil. Yet despite these fears, they did not completely reject witchcraft as they often sought out purported “witches” for magical solutions.

Were the witch-hunts in pre-modern Europe misogynistic? Anne Llewellyn Barstow seems to think so in her article, “On Studying Witchcraft as Women’s History: A Historiography of the European Witch Persecutions”. On the contrary, Robin Briggs disagrees that witch-hunts were not solely based on hatred for women as stated in his article, “Women as Victims? Witches, Judges and the Community”. The witch craze that once rapidly swept through Europe may have been because of misconstrued circumstances. The evaluation of European witch-hunts serves as an opportunity to delve deeper into the issue of misogyny.

Before exploring the reasons that the number of executions of witches was so low in England, we should first explore the English conceptualization of a witch. During the witch craze of the 16th to 17th

The social aspect of witch accusations: “Witchcraft accusations allowed members of early modern European communities to resolve conflicts between themselves and their

One of the most interesting aspects of the European witch trials between 1450 and 1750 is the frequency with which accused witches confessed to the crime of witchcraft throughout the legal proceedings. While some confessions were offered voluntarily, most were not, and extreme measures were often employed by prosecutors to force confessions from the accused. Among the questions this raises, a prominent one is why obtaining confessions to witchcraft was so crucial. This paper argues that confessions were so important in continental Europe because of the critical developments they facilitated: namely, confessions allowed prosecutors to secure convictions of witchcraft within a judicial system that required high standards of proof; they produced information that was invaluable to the creation and spread of the concept of witchcraft; and they validated the guilt of the accused, the reality of

During my study of witchcraft I looked into a number of sources to help me gain insight into the period of 1560-1660 in order to put forward a strong argument in my coursework. A valuable source was Levack “The witch-hunt in early modern Europe”. It offers the reader a thorough and objective examination of witch-hunts and is consistent with the numbers of explanations given from religion to the misogynistic argument. The explanations provided are both easy to understand and therefore have been beneficial to help me form my own conclusions. His book is easily followed with its layout of various tables, charts and references to specific witch-hunt episodes in addition to a bibliography provided for further research.

This essay assesses the claim that witch-hunting was rarely an uncontrollable or hysterical phenomenon. Witch hunts have traditionally been presented in the academic literature as the result of a panicked reaction to supposed malevolent devil worship (e.g., Trevor-Roper 1969; Thomas 1972). In support of this interpretation, it is possible to cite numerous cases in which large numbers of people were put on trial, imprisoned, tortured, and executed seemingly without reason and on poor evidence. It is sometimes argued that a number of the more famous trials were uncontrollable and hysterical in the way they were conducted. Examples include the North Berwick witch trials (1581-1593) in Scotland, the Salem witch trials in America (1692-1693), the Torsåker witch trials in Sweden (1675), and the Trier (1581-1593), Fulda (1603-1606), Bamberg (1626-1631), Würzburg (1626-1631) witch trials in Germany, among others (Briggs 2002; Ankarloo and Henningsen 1999). This argument has also been based on the development of a fierce culture of anti-witchcraft beginning in the 14th century, as evidenced by the publication of books on demonology and the emergence of professions such as ‘witch-hunters’ and ‘inquisitors’ (Ankarloo and Henningsen 1999). This essay argues that these select cases were the exceptions to the rule and that the incidence of ‘witch hysteria’ was relatively low. Contemporary perceptions of witchcraft have been misrepresented by focusing too narrowly on the most dramatic

Witch hunts blazed across Europe over the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries not just killing innumerable innocent people, but stripping women of much of the power they had once held, and changing society's perceptions of women all together. The economic hardships, religious rivalries, and troubled politics of the time made accusing your neighbors of witchcraft convenient. Where there was war and poverty, or merely bad luck, peasants would assume witchcraft and rush to blame an old, defenseless woman in trials which involved unbelievable cruelty and horrible sadism. As religion and the Catholic Church began to complement and perpetuate the increasing hysteria, European society as a whole could do nothing but

In early modern Europe, approximately 90,000 prosecutions for witchcraft transpired (Levack, The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe, 2016, p. 21). Although what caused this iniquity cannot be narrowed down to any one event, there are a number of factors that are more predominant than others. The evolution of many facets of government in addition to naturally occurring disasters, such as crop failure, created a crisis mentality. This shaped the framework for what was to become the witch-hunts that plagued Europe throughout three centuries. While some historians have argued that religion was the principal factor, there is a more compelling argument that social changes were, in fact, the catalyst for the witch panic.

These arguments are not necessarily firm reasons why witch-hunting was so prevalent in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, but do show the ambiguity of the topic. Lawrence Normand and Gareth Roberts argue that adjustments in the social and economic state of Scotland, after there being a lack of change for a length of time, “helped bring about witch hunting.” The notion here is that disruption in the order on the country, with famine and disease present, caused disarray. Normand and Roberts even suggest that witchcraft gave meaning to a peasant’s life when they were deprived. There is, however, a somewhat opposing argument to this, proposed by Christina Larner.