Case Control Study Essay

As a member of management Clive Jenkins is responsible for boosting employee morale to ensure that company goals are met

Background: Osteoporosis is the most common bone disease and is characterized by low bone mass, deterioration of bone tissue and disruption of bone architecture, compromised bone strength, and an increase in the risk of bone fracture. The World health organization (WHO) defines osteoporosis as having a bone mineral density (BMD) at the hip or the lumbar spine of less than or equal to 2.5 standard deviations below the mean BMD of a young-adult reference population. Based on data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III (NHANES III), NOF has estimated that more than 9.9 million Americans have osteoporosis and an additional 43.1 million have low bone density.2 About one out of every two Caucasian women will experience an osteoporosis-related fracture at some point in her lifetime, as will approximately one in five men.

Many risk factors that contribute to bone loss and osteoporosis includes gender, age, size, ethnicity, and family history (Osteoporosis). Some other risk factors includes medication used, smoking, drinking, activity level, calcium and vitamin D intakes as well. Osteoporosis is known as the “silent disease”. It can be present without any symptoms because osteoporosis doesn’t cause symptoms until bone fracture. Therefore, patients may not be aware that they have the disease until they suffer a painful fracture. But some of the signs and symptoms are back pain (caused by a fractured or collapsed vertebra), loss of height over time, a stooped posture, and a broken bone that occurs much more easily than expected (Osteoporosis-Mestar). As the disease progresses, symptoms may include dull or radiating pain in the bones or muscles, curvature of the spine, pain in the abdomen and neck, cramps in the legs at night, brittle fingernails and tooth loss (Osteoporosis-Medstar). Osteoporosis has a direct relationship on oral health. It’s major impact affects the jawbone supporting the teeth. Studies show that a loss in this bone is most likely to cause tooth loss or mobility (Crowford). Because of low density of the jawbones, it leads to dental problem such as poor fitting dentures and at risk of requiring new dentures more often. The best way to handle this problem is to avoid delaying or postponing dental treatments, healthy

For HIV patients having more than > 2 risk factors based on above table-1, use Framingham Risk assessment tool (available at http://hin.nhlbi.nih.gov/atpiii/calculator.asp) to estimate 10 year risk of cardiovascular event or myocardial infarction(MI). However, it has not validated in patients with HIV, is endorsed by international societies such as IDSA [11]. Framingham risk tool over predicted risk in patients who did not receive ART and under predicted risk in patients on ART [12]. Although the utility of this tool in the HIV population may not be optimal but it is likely a reasonable starting point for assessing cardio vascular risk. The highest risk people are those with established cardiovascular disease and those without established

Both cases and controls did not have statistically significant differences in demographics, medical history, body mass index, medication use, blood pressure, fasting cholesterol and glucose. HIV infected individuals were more likely to report non-injecting illicit drug use and had higher rates of clinical lipodystrophy and greater resting heart rates. Cases showed an increased common carotid artery wall thickness diameter (mm) (Left: 0.88 ± 0.08; Right: 0.90 ± 0.10) when compared to the controls (Left: 0.83 ± 0.08, p = 0.03; Right: 0.85 ± 0.07, p = 0.046). No differences were observed in external cholesterol and glucose

In addition, risk factor of osteoporosis is higher in people who already have certain medical problems such as cancer and kidney or liver disease. Besides, the risk of fracture is also increase in patients with condition that the high risk of falls such as hemiplegia, lower limb dysfunction and Parkinson’s disease. It has been shown that an initial fracture is a major risk factor for a new fracture as other clinical condition’s fractures can lead to osteoporosis.

It is also estimated that over 200 million people worldwide suffer from osteoporosis. In the United States and Europe alone, nearly 30% of all postmenopausal women are currently suffering from the disease. Since osteoporosis is highly associated with bone fractures, it is estimated that it causes over 8.9 million fractures worldwide each year, which results in a bone fracture every 3 seconds. It has also been shown that once a person has sustained an initial bone fracture due to osteoporosis, there is an 86% increase in probability that they will sustain an additional fracture. By 2050, projections are estimating that the worldwide incidence of hip fracture in women will increase by 240%, while it will increase by 310% in men. This will mean that the number of hip fractures due to osteoporosis will increase from 1.66 million cases in 1990 to 6.26 million cases by the year of 2050 (International Osteoporosis Foundation, 2015). The picture below shows this

For the epidemiology paper I chose to write about HIV. HIV is growing concern in the community and too many people are uneducated about the seriousness of this disease. HIV is terminal illness; it will eventually consume your life at some point. There are treatment options out there but being compliant with the medication regimen is crucial to the maintenance and management of this disease.

Stated by NHS Choices, (N.D) Osteoporosis is known as a medical condition where bones are left brittle and fragile caused from a loss of tissue which often is from a hormonal change or a calcium/vitamin D deficiency and cause low densityŵ. The factors involved in osteoporosis are common around the age of 50 plus with its effects reaching one in two and one in five men. Osteoporosis is a condition where there is a significant amount of reduction in bone mass which . The risk of fractures that link to osteoporosis are linked with

In old age the consequences of bone loss are greater among women than among men, and the incidence of bone fractures is two-to-threefold

Osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis are both common forms of arthritis. Arthritis is a highly prevalent disease that affects 8.5 million people in the UK and almost a quarter of doctor’s visits regard this illness. Osteoporosis causes disproportionate bone loss and inadequate bone replacement. The bone loss causes weakness, so osteoporosis often causes fractures in the vertebral column, femur and radius. Osteoporosis is more common in women, with one in three women developing it in their lifetimes. The proportion of men who develop osteoporosis is much lower, with only one in ten who are sufferers. Osteoporosis based fractures are more widespread in Caucasian

Osteoporosis literally means ‘porous bone’, it is a disease that weakens bones and increases the risk of sudden fractures. Quite unfair but true that women are at a greater risk for osteoporosis than men. The statistics for osteoporosis from National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Disease shows that in 44 million of people 68 percent of women are at a risk of osteoporosis. Women over 50 years of age have more likely to have fracture related osteoporosis in their lifetime. In all cases of hip osteoporosis 75 percent of them are women. This disease may have its root from adolescence and even childhood that is the period of bone building in your body.

LO1. Osteoporosis is a highly prevalent skeletal disorder [1], which manifests as a deterioration in bone mass [1,2], contributing to an elevated risk of fracture [1,2]. Risk factors can be non-modifiable, including age, race (more common in Caucasian populations [1]), gender (women being more likely to be affected [1]), early menopause, small stature and a family history of osteoporosis [2]. Whereas, risk factors such as poor calcium and vitamin D intake, a lack of exercise, smoking and excessive alcohol intake, fall under the modifiable risk category [2]. Despite the asymptomatic nature of osteoporosis [1], patients can complain of pain, coupled with a visible deformity or apparent immobility [2]. Often fragility fractures, due to relatively

Although people have been told they have osteoporosis, they do not always associate a fracture with the diagnosis (Giangregorio, 2008).

The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) do not seem to be a major topic of discussion in the World today. Especially within the United States, HIV and AIDS are not conversed about as openly as perhaps it was in the past two decades. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) at the end of 2010 there were approximately 1.1 million people living in the United States with the HIV virus. Of those 1.1 million people, about 16% did not even know they were infected (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2010). Each year there are approximately 50,000 new HIV infections within the United States (CDC, 2010). Within the 50,000 new cases of HIV infection, the elderly population is the fastest growing segment within the United States (Sankar, Nevedal, Neufedl, Berry, & Luborsky, 2011, p.2). By 2015, adults who are ages 50 and older will make up approximately 50% of all HIV/AIDS cases in the United States (Effros, Fletcher, Gebo, Courtney, Halter, Hazzard, & High, 2008, p. 542). With the increasing number of HIV/AIDS infections, the demand for prescription drug cocktails has increased. Half of the population diagnosed with HIV/AIDS does not receive regular health care (CDC, 2010). Due to this there are a huge economic impact on the U.S. When it comes to the cost of medication and treatment, many patients are not able to afford the inflated prices, especially the elderly