The Cost of Westernization

Along with population growth large-scale urbanization is happening; in 1950 there were 86 cities with a population of more than one million. As of 2010 there are over 400 cities with populations that exceed one million (Davis 1) (United Nations. World Urbanization Prospects.). Some estimates indicate that most of the world’s urban population growth will be in Asia, with growth centers being India and China. Currently, nine out of the twenty-three cities with a population of more than 10 million are in Asia (Ooi, Phua i28). The rates of urban slum-dwellers in sub-Saharan Africa may further stagger some, with several countries reporting that the vast majority of their urban populations are slum-dwellers (e.g. Ethiopia reports that 99.4% of the urban population resides in slums). Yet, looking beyond the statistics is wholly necessary, since prior to 1990 slums and squatter settlements were rare in West Africa (Grant 1).

Released in 2002, the movie “City of God” presents a number of key urban planning issues that a developing country might experience. The film seeks to illuminate several ideas related to the development of slums and the type of life associated with such areas, as well as urban crime and gangs. This film clearly illuminates the issues associated with government or public housing and the social networks that come up when people do not have a private space. The effects of limited living space are increased crime and the development of local governments that run parallel to the legal units set up in the country. A discussion of the urban planning issues arising from this film will follow, in light of the issues raised by Suketu Mehta in the article

Mike Davis, author of Planet of Slums, predicts the direction in which the world’s cities are headed, and how the changes in living conditions are only going to deteriorate if certain trends continue. The title of his book explains Davis’s vision for the future of cities as he feels there is enough evidence pointing towards an exponential rise in slum populations across the world’s largest cities. Additionally, he expresses his opinion on many issues regarding the rapid rise in developing cities’ slum populations, although he offers very one-sided arguments geared towards those who feel the current system is causing more problems rather than improving current conditions. This causes Davis to overlook the problems of slums as resolvable through different modes of assistance such as international aid programs. Instead, he views aid programs as the root cause of imbalance created during industrialization. Throughout the book, Davis presents information that confirms his preconceptions towards the slums. Therefore, all the evidence that is presented by him portrays confirmation bias as Davis fails to mention anything about the resolution of the problem of the growing number of slums and instead sees this problem as unavoidable. Particularly, Davis’ writing, although intended for the general population, is more geared towards critics who have similar ideas. Instead of providing the means through which the economy could be improved and the problem of slums could be resolved, it is

International development and underdevelopment are major issues in global society today. John Perkins’ book The New Confessions of an Economic Hit Man is a very critical account on the activities of private corporations such as MAIN and international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund and how many actions are based on self-interest, corruption and greed. The book does an exceptional job at giving us an insider’s perspective on why debt induced developing nations are in a constant state of underdevelopment from the corrupt actions of Economic Hit Men and their colleagues Jackals who deal with the dirty side of the business and political economics. Global economics and debt have

“Out of the Mountains” predicts that these large urban centers will become the equivalent to the city-states of antiquity (Kilcullen 2013). Kilcullen (2013) identifies the contemporary global theatre as one which is experiencing rabid urban growth, and predicts that conflict will also steadily urbanize over time. When cities grow rapidly, they often do so without the proper planning and design that efficient communities require to function (Kilcullen 2013). Kilcullen’s (2013) argument citing urbanization as a factor in future environments is based around the assumption that local municipalities will fail to institute adequate planning measures to match population growth. He provides the example of the attacks on Mumbai as proof that rapidly urbanized areas foster irregular

In the book, “Planet of Slums” Mike Davis discusses, why there are mast migration from the rural villages to the megacities of the Third World. What megacities are is a city when the total population in it exceeds over eight million. He also discusses how the treason of the state, international banks and the ideas thinkers like Hernando de Soto makes the lives of people in the urban south much worse. Urban south are cities like Mexico City, Delhi, Dhaka, Cairo, Beijing, Lima and etc (Davis 4) that experience in major increase in population by more than ten times its size from 1950 to 2004, it is cities in the third world. Mike Davis believed that, the government, international banks and thinkers such as Hernando de Soto are the one responsible for making the condition in the urban south terrible for the poor while good only for the officials and the rich.

This never-ending cycle of debt is the reality for most, if not all of Third World countries. In the 1970’s, Western banks loaned out huge sums of money to Third World nations with the intention of one day making profit. And they succeeded.

The phrase “the west and the rest” is often discussed in regards to how westernization perhaps influences and even trumps other cultures. Westernization is defined as a “cause (a country, person, or system) to adopt or be influenced by the cultural, economic, or political systems of Europe and North America” or to “be in the process of adopting or being influenced by the systems of the West” (New Oxford American Dictionary). This implies that it is frequent that other cultures are exposed to Western cultures and then adopt the customs to be their own, and indeed this has occurred in several Eastern countries. Another concept that is discussed often is globalization, which is defined as “the process by which businesses or other

The first locomotive aspect of contemporary globalization, offered by the IMF, is the movement of capital. The economies of nations have become increasingly interlinked due to the free flow of capital, and semi-unrestricted global trade via a reduction in protectionist measures (birdsall 2003). However, this movement of capital occurs in a highly asymmetric fashion across international borders. The post-colonial reality of countries of the Global South, which saw their resources plundered, has a profound effect on the ability of these countries to freely engage with and benefit from globalization in the same way as countries of the Global North. The wealth accumulated by highly industrialized nations from historical imperialism, has allowed them to produce a wealth of institutions which in-turn creates a reputation of stability and reliability for them. These institutions and reputation allow them to benefit

With more than 385 million people living in south America, It has become the most urbanized area in our developing world. Urbanization is the shift from Rural to an urban society, which can be appealing to many who are looking for opportunities. A census was taken in the 2000s that showed that 80% or 3.8 million of the SOuth American population lived in the continents Big cities.There are some that deem this crazy, but, can we blame them? Cities offer a shorter distance to resources and good jobs, and in return can create higher prices and economies can flourish.

These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city. Other types of cities include, but are certainly not limited to the contested city, in which urban resistance is a key image; the gendered city, dominant in urbanizing areas such as Africa where women find themselves newly employed in low-wage labor; postmodern city, that is centered on capitalism; and fortress city, where different populations within the city are separated, usually based on socioeconomic factors. The main reasons for the current studies focusing on types on cities are to understand the patterns in which cities are now developing in, to study theoretical cities that may come about in the future based on these current trends, and to increase the implications of anthropological studies. Anthropological studies have serious implications on the understanding of urban society: with the rapid rate of globalization, many peasant societies are quickly attempting to modernize their cities and populations, but at an expense of the interests of the people within the cities. Studies can illustrate these

Far from being seen as objective entities, the World Trade Organization (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), and World Bank are often conceptualized as instruments of the developed world. It is alleged that they are used to enforce crippling economic policies upon the developing world. To some extent, it is perhaps inevitable that these international institutions are seen as such. The memory of colonial exploitation in Latin America, Africa, and other developing nations runs deep, and the power dynamic of these institutions relative to the nations they are ostensibly helping often echoes the relationship of the colonizing to the colonized.

It is not the loans themselves that have been shown to increase poverty and inequality (see Table 1) but instead the macroeconomic conditions attached to them (Crisp & Kelly, 1999). For example, in order for a country to receive aid from the WB they are required to do several of the following: raise food prices to cut the burden of subsidies, privatize all or part of state-owned enterprises (Peabody, 1996), raise the price of public services (Creese, 1991), cut public sector budgets, reduce tax on foreign investment, devalue local currency, and cut wages (Pfeiffer & Chapman, 2010). These conditions are a way for the WB to establish accountability and to ensure that the loans they are giving to countries are being used for policies that the WB sees as part of good development. In theory, the concept of SAPs is perceived as being necessary and important, but in practise it has not showed the aspired results.

Unlike a liberalist perspective who believe such international institutions can make a difference, realists adopts a “self-help system” in this dangerous world, consequently developing a psychological state of fear and mistrust. They strongly oppose to the effect of international institutions facilitating foreign aid and development, and raise a thought-provoking question: are these institutions really willing to help these economically low developing needs or are they just doing things strategically to meet powerful countries’ needs? After all, the rules of institutions like the United Nations, World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) are all written by leading countries. They may project their aims to foster monetary cooperation and secure financial stability, but with the power they have to make decisions on what to do with these developing countries, the motive to influence the decisions in a way to benefit their domestic economy is very high. According to Hans J. Morgenthau, “international politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power. Whatever the ultimate aims of international politics, power is the immediate aim”. With realists’ high priority of power and focus on relative gains, regardless of foreign aid given through an international institution or given directly by the donor government, the possibility of providing foreign aid with solely the intention to meet their self

The three major international economic institutions are the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the World Trade Organization; this book mainly focuses on the IMF and the World Bank, due to the author’s first-hand experience with both institutions. The IMF, a public institution built as a guiding hand for economic stability around the world, has brought false