The eighteenth-century French intellectual Voltaire said the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire. What did he mean?

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  1. What were the main reasons for the Cluny reform movement? Why did it succeed? How did this reform movement influence the subsequent history of the medieval church?
  2. The eighteenth-century French intellectual Voltaire said the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire. What did he mean? Do you agree with him?

   3.    What major development in western and eastern Europe encouraged the emergence of the Crusades? Why did the Crusaders fail to establish lasting political and religious control over the Holy Land?

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