Critically Evaluate the role of Neural Structures in Subserving a Specific Psychological Function.

The Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a functional neuroimaging procedure that used MRI technology to measure our brains activity through blood flow changes and our voxels.

These findings suggest that areas specific for semantic memory play a significant role in the retrieval of distant memories, whereas midline posterior parietal structures may be primarily involved with more current events. Regardless of time frame, ABM retrieval appears to be significantly associated with the integrity of the hippocampus, agreeing with current theories highlighting a time-invariant role for the medial temporal lobes in recovering events from the past (Irish et al.,

Early investigations of the role of the hippocampus in social memory involved lesions to the brain areas that project to and from the hippocampus. One of such areas is medial septum, which has strong reciprocal projections to and from hippocampal formation (McNaughton & Miller 1984; Alonso & Köhler 1984; Chandler & Crutcher 1983). It has been shown that vincristine-induced lesions to the medial septum impairs social memory (Terranova et al. 1994; Fournier et al. 1993). Similarly, transection of the fimbria, which carries multiple projections to and from the hippocampus (Wyss et al. 1980; Cassel et al. 1997) also impairs social recognition memory (Maaswinkel et al. 1996). (but see also Petrulis et al. 2000)

Recent studies suggest that the EC controls the bidirectional flow of information to and from the hippocampus, and plays an important role in the declarative memory deficits of MTLE patients [9]. The amygdala mediates memory consolidation through norepinephrine (NE) release [10]. Patients with MTLE were grouped according to the type of memory impairment they experienced—verbal and nonverbal memory. In the majority of studies and verbal memory impairments have been clearly identified [11.12.13]. Memory studies on the left or right anterior temporal lobe indicated that MTLE in the left brain clearly impairs verbal memory [14]. The current understanding of the role of the right temporal lobe in memory is somewhat limited due to using the Warrington Recognition Memory Test for Faces as the only nonverbal memory measure. [15]. Impaired recognition of facial stimuli has clearly been documented concerning to the right temporal lobe [16] and nonsense figure recognition indicate involvement of the right temporal lobe in memory deficits. The aim of this study was to investigate the roles of various MTL regions including the hippocampus, amygdala, and EC in verbal and nonverbal memory in patients with MTLE. We quantified the volumes of MTL structures and investigated potential correlations between memory measures and MRI data

Memory is both an essential, yet complex, psychological process that relies on numerous neuroanatomical structures, including parts of the prefrontal cortex, cerebral cortex, temporal lobe, amygdala, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and the hippocampus, just to name a few. However, almost all areas of the human brain are connected to the systematic functioning of memory. According to Okano, Hirano, & Balaban (2000), differentiation between the process of memory and the process of learning is important in order understanding the neurobiological aspects of memory, although both are very closely connected. The researchers define memory as a behavioral modification resulting from innate experiences, while the act of learning is more of a process for

It has been found that the hippocampus might be an intermediary between the neo-cortex's representations and the filing away of information into long term memory. This would go along with the idea of various components of the nervous system communicating with each other to create inputs and outputs. In one study, rats were presented with food only if a tone and a light were presented together. Rats which had received a lesion to the hippocampus had a hard time learning the conditioned response to obtain the food. This finding might lead one to the idea that the lesion affected the animal's ability to remember or retrieve the information that would tell it to perform the response and get food. Animals when trained to a fearful stimulus in a specific context will become conditioned to the context, they will begin to fear the context in which the fearful stimulus is given. Animals with hippocampal lesions do not gain this context conditioning. Or rather, they do not gain a fear of the context of the situation where fearful shocks are given. (http://www.cogsci.soton.ac.uk/bbs/Archive/bbs.eichenbaum.html) This prompted some researchers to think that the hippocampus may have something to do with our ability to remember context, or context cues that surround us in the real world.

Under normal circumstances, several parts of the brain process our memories. Some of the more influential parts of the

The brain is the main asset of our body as it controls different functions, therefore it is part of the nervous system alongside the spinal cord. Our brain has four different parts (known as lobes) that are required for different types of bodily functions (found within the cerebral cortex). The different parts are called: -

The medial temporal lobe (MTL) has long been known to be involved in different kinds of memory processes. The MTL is a region of the brain comprised of the hippocampus and the entorhinal, perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices.1 Lesions to the MTL results in anterograde amnesia. Patients lose both episodic memory, the ability to remember autobiographical events, as well as recognition memory2. Previous episodic memories are not generally lost with MTL lesions, with the exception of some experiences immediately preceding the amnesic event. Patients with hippocampal lesions do not lose the ability to form procedural memories, which give people the ability to habitually perform procedures.

Imaging studies were performed using PET and fMRI to scan the brains of monkeys, rabbits, rats, and cats viewing stimuli. This last detail, however, is very different from the rest as all the other studies examined tasks done with humans. Because of this, the results taken on the monkeys, rabbits, rats, and cats could reflect a larger difference from the other studies conducted with human participants. The results from the animal experiments that viewed stimuli showed that long-term memory is reliant on the release of dopamine in the hippocampus for long-term potential. As well, long-term potential memory can be heightened by the activation of dopamine receptors. Hence, that there is reasonable evidence from these experiments performed on animal hippocampus’s that dopamine enhances learning and encoding into the long-term memory in addition to a reduction in dopamine production in the hippocampus decreases memory. For human long-term encoding capabilities this indicates a 25% improvement in the memory, but there is not clear evidence yet whether reduction in dopamine creates learning and encoding deficits into the human mind (Otmakhova,

As previously mentioned in this review, PET is a functional imaging technique that uses radio-labelled markers. Thus, it is not suitable for longitudinal studies or for the testing of several cognitive domains within the same experiment. In addition, it has low statistical power which makes its use challenging for group studies, specially. For all these reasons, functional MRI seems a better choice, although specific paradigms (i.e. hierarchical complexity-wise stimuli) need to be designed to allow an unequivocal interpretation of positive

The brain is one of the most complex organs in the human body, which consists of

The different layers of the brain are the hindbrain, the limbic system, cortexes, and main association areas. The hindbrain includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. The limbic system includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and the hippocampus. The cerebral cortex involve the motor cortex, the sensory cortex, and also have to do with the major lobes of the brain as well. Each part in each layer of the brain work together to allow us to have memories and interpret sensory information. All parts are vital to the way our body functions and one would not work without the other.

The brain accounts for all thought and movement that the body processes. The brain not only allows for interaction with others, but also allows for communication with others. The brain is divided in about four major parts. Those parts include: the cerebrum, cerebellum, limbic system, and brain stem.

It is selective and prolific - not all information is stored by the brain even though the acquisition of data is continuous. The encoding process entails making associations with previously known facts, which contributes to the longevity of information. Once an event has been processed by the brain, it is then stored. This leads to Long Term Memory (LTM) and, consequently, a physical alteration of the brain. The structure of neurons is changed, and circuits, known as neural networks, are created or strengthened. Moreover, the production of proteins and the transfer of neurotransmitters to receptors through synapses, augments and solidifies circuits. With the repetition of such process through the continuous retrieval of memory, the synapse connections become more efficient and the memory is hardened. These steps contribute to the consolidation of memories which is essential to learning. The retention period is also invaluable to the formation of LTM and is a product of time and the occurrence of no overlaps. If similar pieces of information are processed by the brain, it is likely that one will interfere with the memorization of the other as the brain becomes distraught and is unable to store them. The retrieval process is determined by how easily accessible memories are. The more connections pieces of information have with already stored memories, the faster they can be