In order to determine whether the term ‘astronaut’, as it is presented in Article V of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and
Other Celestial Bodies (OST), includes the vast class of personnel who now enter outer space, this paper will adhere to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT). Article 31of the VCLT explicitly addresses the process, and general rules of treaty interpretation. By principle, treaty interpretation must be approached in a holistic manner and in ‘good faith’ and should attempt to protect interests of all parties. In interpreting the meaning of words in treaties, the ordinary meaning of such words must first be considered.
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The ordinary meaning of ‘travelling’ includes being a passenger on vehicles moving from point A to point B. In light of this reasoning, scientists, teachers, media, and potential tourists need not be experts in operating space crafts but rather having training in how to travel, or be a passenger in a space craft, and this could suffice. Despite not be a part of the crew operating space crafts, merely being trained to travel in space crafts still satisfies the ordinary meaning of the term ‘astronaut’ under Art V of the OST. For the purpose of the OST, ‘astronaut’ is defined as “astronauts as envoys of mankind in outer space.” If the ordinary meaning of this definition is considered, ‘envoys of mankind’ lends itself to support this this broader interpretation of the word ‘trained’ rather than the narrower interpretation of only including experts in operating space crafts being constituted as ‘trained’. ‘Envoys of mankind’ in this case can be interpreted not as ‘diplomatic envoys’ (as if this was the case this is what would have been stated), but rather they are representatives of mankind in general. This would include all and any member of mankind who is to venture into space and is sent by any population of mankind who inhabit earth.
To consider the context of the OST treaty, the preamble and annexes must be examined. The preamble emphasises peaceful activities,
Apollo 13 was to be the third mission sent from the Apollo Project to land on the Moon. An explosion in one of the oxygen tanks caused the spacecraft to become crippled during the flight and the crew were forced to orbit the Moon and return to the Earth without landing. The Apollo 13 mission was launched on Saturday afternoon, April 11, 1970 from launch complex 39A at Kennedy Space Center. The space prime crew consisted of trained experts Commander James A. Lovell Jr., Command module pilot Ken Mattingly and Lunar module pilot Fred W. Haise Jr. There was also three backup crew members named John W. Young, John L. Swigert Jr. and Charles M. Duke. This crew was ready to step in if for any reason something were to happen to any of the main
Apollo 13 launched on April 11, 1970 from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The crewmembers aboard the ship were James A. Lovell Jr., John L. Swigert Jr., and Fred W. Haise, Jr. Before the launch, there had been a few problems. Thomas K. Mattingly was supposed to fly on the Apollo 13 but he was exposed to the measles. He didn’t have the antibodies to fight the disease, causing him to not be able to go into space. Swigert took his place. Right before the launch, one of the technicians saw that the helium tank had a higher pressure than expected. Nothing was done to fix this. During liftoff, the second-stage engine shut down, causing the other engines to run longer than planned. Apollo 13 was off to a rocky start.
The Apollo 13 mission was a significant historical event, because of the dangerous repercussions that followed the explosion of the oxygen tank on Apollo 13. The story in which the astronauts Lovell, Swigert, and Haise surviving these errors during the flight is truly incredible. In the movie Apollo 13, the creators depicted most of the events involving the crew’s adventure to and from space quite accurately. Although creating most events successfully the creators of Apollo 13 failed in many regards when it came to the creation of the plans the crew used to survive, and the small details that were missed, involving the crew in the process of flying the space shuttle and surviving the accident.
The Space Race was a 20th century competition between two Cold War rivals, the United States of America and the Soviet Union. This competition was held between 1955 until 1972 and enabled these two rivals to advance their ability of spaceflight and their exploration out of the Earth’s reach. The competition covered several ways in taking human life out of Earth’s orbit and to successfully bring them back home in the process. The Space Race brought about several controversial topics relating to how the USSR copied the methods conducted by the United States, how the United States retaliated against the USSR and the man landing was purposely staged or not. These factors contribute to a large extent on how the space race was won. The Space Race
As you grow older, you also become wiser, and the way you used to look at things also changes, and even though you regret your former actions, you will have to live with how it turned out, instead of being stuck in the past and how it could had been.
The Americans and the Soviet Space Program were both involved in man-in-space programs, but unlike the Russians they were not inclined to minimize the scientific merits of the operation. "Scientists of the United States will welcome this technological achievement by Soviet engineers and medical experts and by the Soviet astronaut, because it represents a further step in the exploration of space and will inevitably add to Man's knowledge about himself and the universe in which he lives."
Three main clusters that are developed under this idea of space exploration is the benefits that are gained, ethical code and what it means with regard to the future of the human race. In this paper I will talk about what major projects are being worked on and who will benefit from these. This will also include what laws of space are and ethical code. This will also identify the differing viewpoints on space exploration and whether the big picture is worth the small steps being taken as to advancements in space technology and sciences.
In 1961, the United States of America was embroiled in the Cold War with the Soviet Union. This confrontation was taking place not only on land, sea and air, but in space as well. On May 25th, 1961 recently elected US President John F. Kennedy addressed a joint session of Congress, during which he outlined his now famous Man on the Moon challenge. It was through this ambitious dream that the creation of the National Aeronautical Space Administration (NASA) came about, which President Kennedy challenged to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. Although he didn't live to see the achievement of his dreams, the United States successfully landed Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin on the moon on July 20, 1969 and
"One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," said by Neil Armstrong as he took his first steps on the moon during the NASA Apollo 11 expedition to the moon. No man has ever been to the moon before and NASA, The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, was the first to get someone to land on the moon. NASA has had many great accomplishments in exploring the "new frontier" that have affected the United States ever since it was first created in July 1958. The idea for NASA first started when the Soviet Union launched the first satellite on October 4, 1957. United States started up its own space travel program and started to work on its own projects that would be better in than the Soviet Union's. This all started the great
have made it to space, but his extensive knowledge of the ins and outs of the spacecraft
Space has been considered to be the common heritage of all humanity, from the time of the first launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957. This common heritage This is reflected in the landmark the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (‘Outer Space Treaty’ or ‘OST’), which affirms that all have a right to access space for peaceful and scientific purposes, and prohibits the sovereign appropriation of outer space. In 2015 the US Congress passed the Space Resource Exploration and Utilization Act (‘US Space Act’) , which provides for the ‘commercial exploration for and commercial recovery of space resources by United States citizens’. Some commentators
We have dreamt of spaceflight since ancient times. Humans have developed and thought of many ways to acquire this immense feat and it wasn’t till the 20th century mankind were able to build rockets powerful enough to overcome the force of gravity. Since then, we’ve successfully sent mankind to the moon, rovers to mars and space probes deep into the reaches of our solar system. Nations have striven to advance and attain great heights in the field of space exploration. The constant competitiveness between USA and USSR during the cold war led to many major breakthroughs in the history of space exploration beginning with USSR launching the first international space station and USA successfully landing a human on the moon. The international space station (ISS) stands as the basis of how international collaboration can affect space exploration. Even though some nations are unwilling to work together, space exploration provides a platform for nations to form relationships that benefits one another and create beneficial relationships with each other.
NASA contributed to a number of successes in American history. During the past, the organization has rapidly acquired a number changes that has created an opportunity to expand and improve Knowledge Management (KM). Similar to many other important organizations, NASA has frequently pursued ways to capture knowledge into their information systems assuming that it could be managed best when it 's captured in a system for later retrieval. In the past 10 years, the budgets on their missions have been reduced, missions have multiplied ten-fold, and scientists and engineers have been overwhelmed by the extreme challenges. The most important factors that are addressed includes the importance of learning, (FBC) faster, better, cheaper implications, and knowledge management that supports innovation in the future.
In the past they would look for at least a 1,000 hours in flight time, currently they are looking for someone who has at least 3 years of experience in their specific field. There is no specific ability that you must meet to be looked at however; NASA tends to look at applicants who “undertake whatever they do with the full force of their abilities to reach a level of excellence.” When the top 100 applications are selected personality is what matters the most. The applicant must undergo a personal interview with a board of NASA executives to decide whether they like you or not. Personality is something that is a must when you are chosen to go up in space. Being in a small space for up to six months with six or so other people requires the astronaut to have good personable skills that will make the mission go as planned.
Article 2 emphasizes the rudimentary importance of sovereignty in international law as almost absolute. This belief has been further demonstrated in General Assembly Resolutions. Resolution 2625, accepts the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States. Amongst other considerations, it confirms the importance of the Charter and sovereign equality. General Assembly Resolution 3314, defines aggression and calls upon members to refrain from aggression as well as other uses of force that would not be in compliance with the Charter. It also reinforces the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States. Declaration 42/22, the approval of the Declaration on the Enhancement of the Effectiveness of the Principle of Refraining from the Threat or Use of Force in International Relations, once again reaffirms the importance of non-intervention, the importance of peaceful relations and the necessity for peaceful means to be used in conflict resolution because a) the risks and concerns associated with conflict and more importantly in this