Eukaryotes Research Paper

ATP is the main energy molecule in cells and has a unique function as an energy transferor. This molecule contains nitrogenous base adenine connected to three molecules of phosphorus. The last 2 phosphates are high energy bonds. When ATP releases the terminal phosphate, energy is released while forming a new compound ADP. ADP can be remade with another phosphate to form ATP again

Oxidation of NADH and FADH2to H2O (and NAD or FAD). Generates H ion concentration gradient and therefore ATP.

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have two membranes that surround them. The inner membrane is probably from the engulfed bacterium and this is supported by that the enzymes and proteins are most like their counterparts in prokaryotes. The outer membrane is formed from the plasma membrane or endoplasmic reticulum of the host cell. The electron transport enzymes and the H+ ATPase are only found in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of the eukaryotic cell. (2)

In photosynthesis H+ ions are vital in the production of the energy source that is ATP, which is used in several metabolic processes, such as respiration. The photolysis of water produces H+ ions, electrons and O2. The excited electrons lose energy as they move along the electron transport chain, this energy is used to transport the H+ ions (protons) in to the thylakoid, which causes a higher concentration of H+ than there is in the stroma, thus causing a proton gradient across the membrane. The H+ then proceed to move down the concentration gradient into the stroma via the enzyme ATP synthase. The energy from this process is called chemiosmosis and combines ADP with inorganic phosphate (Pi) to form ATP. Light energy is then absorbed by photosystem I (PS I) which excites the electrons to a higher energy level. These electrons are transferred to NADP with H+ ions from the stroma to form reduced NADP. The whole of this process is

The third and final step in cellular respiration is the electron transport chain which takes place in the inner mitochondrion membrane. This process uses the high-energy electrons from the Krebs cycle to convert ADP into ATP. These high-energy electrons are first passed along the electron transport chain. Every time 2 electrons travel down this chain, their energy is used to transport hydrogen ions (H+) across the membrane. These H+ ions escape through channels into an ATP synthase. This causes it to spin, transforming the ADP into ATP. On average, each pair of high-energy electrons that moves down the electron

The two carbon molecule bonds four carbon molecule called oxaloacete forming a carbon molecule knew as citrate. The second step reaction is classified as oxidation/reductions reactions. This process is formed by two molecule of CO2 and one molecule of ATP. The cycle electrons reduce NAD and FAD, which join the H+ ions to form NADH and FADH2, this result to an extra NADH being formed during the transition. In the mitochondrion, four molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2 are produced for each molecule of pyruvate, two molecules of pyruyate enter the matrix for each molecule of oxidized glucose, as a result of these eight molecules of NADH+ two molecules are produced. Six molecules of NADH+, molecules of FADH2 and two molecules of ATP synthesize itself in Krebs cycle. As a result, no oxygen is used in the described reactions. During chimiosmosis, oxygen only plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation. The next step is the electron transport; the electrons are stored on NADH and FADH2 and are used to produce ATP. Electron transport chain is essential to make most ATP produced in cellular respiration. The NADH and FAD2 from the Krebs cycle drop their electrons at the beginning of the transport chain. When the electrons move along the electron transport chain, it gives power to pump the hydrogen along the membrane from the matrix into the intermediate space. This process forms a gradient concentration forcing the hydrogen through ATP syntheses attaching

carboxyl terminus is necessary to recruit mitochondria, and the N terminus is anchored to the

NADPH and FADPH are both an electron carrier developed in cellular respiration and photosynthesis. They both will arrive electron chain transport and transfer their electrons to the next electron acceptor until the electrons reach oxygen. “Each cytochrome holds electrons at different energy states. Higher energy electrons enter the ETC at higher levels and lower energy electrons enter at lower levels.” (Daempfle, 2016) As a result these electrons progress will pump H+ from one cell to another. In cellular respiration, the electrons flow will cause proton to acquire in the compartment among inner and outer membrane of mitochondria. Furthermore, photosynthesis, the electron purpose establish proton to accumulate inside inter-thylakoid membrane.

The energy that is gathered in such electrochemical gradients is subsequently converted into ATP by ATP synthase in a process that is a form of photophosphorylation. The ability of these light-driven pumps to transportations across membranes depends on the sunlight-driven alterations in the structure of a retinal cofactor embedded in the protein center. Some swamp-dwelling archaea thrive in anaerobic settings. Such methanogenic metabolism relies on carbon dioxide as an electron acceptor to oxidize hydrogen.

When comparing both electron transport processes within the mitochondria and in the chloroplasts, we will notice that though seemingly similar, the do have some major differences. One similarity is that both use an electron transport chain (ETC), proton pumps, and ATP Synthase as major key parts

The area between these two membranes is called the intermembrane space, a reservoir for hydrogen ions used for synthesizing ATP from ADP. ATP is generated at the inner membrane of the mitochondria by an efficient mechanism known as oxidative phosphorylation, involving several membrane protein complexes. Nutrients provide high-energy electrons in the form NADH, which are used by the protein complexes to pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space.

The role of the hydrogen ion gradients in both cellular respiration in the mitochondria and photosynthesis in the chloroplast is that the hydrogen gradients is the gradient stores the energy. Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across the membrane. Chemiosmosis generate ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across the membrane during cellular respiration and photosynthesis. In the cellular respiration it travels down the electron transport system and in photosynthesis it travels through the ATP synthases. Both the cellular respiration and the photosynthesis uses ATP energy to temporarily use the energy it stores for future uses. Photosynthesis uses solar energy to convert into the chemical bond of glucose and cellular respiration converts the

Cellular respiration is a procedure that most living life forms experience to make and get chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The energy is synthesized in three separate phases of cellular respiration: glycolysis, citrus extract cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are both anaerobic pathways because they do not bother with oxygen to form energy. The electron transport chain however, is aerobic due to its use of oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidative phosphorylation is the procedure in which ATP particles are created with the help of oxygen atoms (Campbell, 2009, p. 93). During which, organic food molecules are oxidized to synthesize ATP used to drive the metabolic reactions necessary to maintain the organism’s physical integrity and to support all its activities (Campbell, 2009, pp. 102-103).

while releasing energy from it's bonds. This is the energy used by the cell to produce

In the metabolic reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions are very essential for ATP synthesis. The electrons removed in the oxidation are transferred to two major electron carrier enzymes. The electrons are transported through protein complexes in present in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The complexes contain attached chemical groups which are capable of accepting or donating one or more electrons. The protein complexes are known as the electron transfer system (ETS). The ETS allow distribution of the free energy between reduced coenzymes and the O2. The ETS is associated with proton (H+) pumping from the mitochondrial matrix to intermembrane space of the mitochondria.