Numerical concepts

The participants for this study are required to be around the same age and intelligence to ensure that there is control in the study. Since it is controlled, it will ensure more reliability and validity, which will make the data more accurate. Instead of choosing participants from all different ages, choosing high school students from roughly the same age will increase reliability and validity. If the researchers decided to use people from a wide range of ages, some participants would be at a disadvantage. For example, if they decided to use older people their memory may not be as sharp. In addition, if participants were a lot younger then they could be distracted more easily, which will make it harder for them to concentrate on memorizing the numbers from the test. For this reason, the researchers decided to choose participants from high school.

A sample was taken on January 26, 2016 using a random sampling procedure. The length and

Overall my academic standing has significantly improved since graduating high school. My freshman and sophomore years in high school were a greater challenge for me than my junior, senior and college years, with regard to academics.

the least. An average of 9.2 green, 12.2 blue, 6.8 red, and 8.2 yellow M&M’s were

, we interviewed 165 students. 79% of the students were in ninth grade as Freshman, 8% were in tenth grade, 10% were in eleventh grade, and 4% were in twelfth grade as seniors. The participants were made up of 58% male

In the simpler counting section, Kerget was able to count the correct number of teddies one by one by saying the corresponding number words out. This shows that Kerget could divide objects with the same attribute into one collection and is able to count small collections using the one-to-one correspondence counting knowledge. Lovin, Karp, Bay-Williams and Van de Walle (2013) maintain that children develop the concept of one-to-one correspondence when they count objects by paring one number word with exactly one object. When he finished counting the four yellow teddies, he turned to the green ones, starting from number one instead of number five. He successfully identified which collections had more teddies. This further indicates that Kerget understands the idea of collection and has the beginning knowledge of the concepts of ‘more’ and ‘less’. Children’s understanding of the meanings and relationships of ‘more’, ‘less’, and ‘same’ is the fundamental attribute to their number sense development (Lovin, Karp, Bay-Williams, & Van de Walle, 2013). Kerget used the one-to-one correspondence knowledge to put out five teddies and stopped when he said:” five, there are five teddies.” He understands that the last number word he said is the total number of the objects he has been counted. This tells me he understands the concept of cardinality. Lovin, Karp,

The possession of numeracy skills is important for school students, in regards to their continuing education, employment, and interaction within their community (Hogan & Kemp, 1999).

“In his famous penny conservation experiment, Piaget demonstrated that until about the age of 6, children would say that the spread out row of pennies had more than the row with the (equal number) of more squished together pennies, even if they themselves counted each row. Piaget explains this contradiction by stating that children’s logic in this time period is ruled by perceptions as opposed to reasoning” (Anthony). Preschoolers use different kinds of symbols, objects and things to describe their surroundings. As they can point at a box and say, “mom like at that house, it’s so big and colorful”.

A closer look at the results reveals even more interesting ideas. As Frank concluded in his study with the Pirahã (2008), a group of people without an exact numeral system, the lack of this numeral system may form a barrier for remembering and tracking exact quantity. The Mr. Elephant game invites the children to a task on a similar topic because the peanuts go into an opaque box and thus they are required to track the original amount. Drawing from the knower-level view, CP-knowers should understand the actual meaning of numbers and how counting works, while SS-knowers only understand up to a certain number and do not realize that the same principle is to be applied to all numbers. Thus, the CP-knowers are the ones who truly grasp the meaning behind the number words, while the SS-knowers tend to use number words without understanding them. Following this

These studies only included undergraduate students, therefore consisting mainly of young adults. This raises questions on whether results can be generalised to those in all age groups.

The sample was on a group of people of about 427 from the Slovak high school and university students. In the first sample there were 213 high school and university students from different schools in Košice,

The population for this experiment was Adelaide High School students who are aged from 13 to 18. The sample came from a total

The left column shows various categories. In each “category” the people who participated in extra-curricular activity scored higher.

In addition, I made progress in English and math: I passed Eiken 4th, 3rd, and pre-2nd grade

The variable GPA was measured by the question “What is your current overall grade point average?”. This was an open-ended question were the person being interviewed was encouraged to answer with their current grade point average. After conducting the interviews and reviewing the master data set, this variable was broken down into two categories. The two categories were coded as high GPA and low GPA and was broken down by splitting the data as close to a 50/50 split as possible. High GPA represented grade point averages from 3.5-4.0 and low GPA represented grade point averages from 2.0-3.4.