Paul Bestolarides Research Paper

Irenaeus was born in Smyrna, Asia Minor around 120 AD (Olson, 68). He was tutored by the famous Polycarp, who learned from the Apostle John. During his life, Irenaeus spent much of his time writing to different leaders as well as writing to Christians, as a whole, dealing with the issue of Gnosticism. Adversus Haereses and Proof of the Apostolic Preaching are two works, by Irenaeus, that we have been able to receive complete transcript of (Poncelet, 2016). Irenaeus also has many works that we only have partial transcripts of. For example, On the Subject of Knowledge, On the Ogdoad, “a treatise on schism,” and letters to the Pope Victor, are a few of the partial transcripts of Irenaeus works (Poncelet, 2016). Irenaeus death was one that has a twist of mystery. One thing, known for sure, is he was killed during a Christian massacre in Lyons, during the year 202. What remains a mystery is the manner in which he died. According to Olson, “he was counted a martyr and saint by both Greek-speaking Christians of the East and Latin-speaking Christians of the Western half of the Roman Empire” (70). Irenaeus life was one of significance, especially when it came to his writings on Gnosticism and the theory of Redemption.

Most of Irenaeus’s quotations and references to scripture from the Old Testament, against Gnosticism, he meant to show how the old testament pointed to Christ and how the two testaments were connected. Christ had no connection to the Old Testament and his father was not the God of the Hebrews. The material world was a cosmic blunder, and Christ came to save humanity from the inept Creator God of the Old Testament. Irenaeus countered the Gnostics’ claim to secret knowledge with the concept of apostolic succession. He reasoned that if Jesus had indeed brought secret knowledge he would have told the apostles, who would have in turn have told their successors, that if any secret knowledge had been handed on by Jesus he would know it. The Docetists

Gnosticism can be defined as the mystical perception of knowledge and was considered to be a heresy that was condemned by those who followed the traditional Orthodox form of Christianity. In the second century the movement of Gnostic Christianity occurred; it is also referred to as a Christian sect (Carus). Though people viewed Gnostic Christianity as a sect, it has never been denied that Gnosticism is older than Christianity and the relation and importance between the two groups have never been acknowledged (Gnostic Discoveries). Since the discovery of texts found at Nag Hammadi which presents Jesus as a Gnostic teacher, the connection between the two groups has grown exponentially, and Paul Carus the author of The Monist even believes that Christianity is a branch of Gnosticism. Marvin Meyer a professor of Bible and Christian studies, has found that the discovery of the Gnostic texts allows scholars to get a deeper understanding of Christian teachings and relate the findings to biblical texts (Gnostic Discoveries).

The Patristic Era saw various controversies arising over the nature of Jesus Christ, which consequently lead to the establishment of the creed as an attempt to reject the heretical views held by proponents. An example of a heretical advocate is Arius, who suggested Christ was inferior to God, but still above other creatures (McGrath, 2001, p.358). However, early orthodox theologians disputed this idea due to the soteriological complications that accompanied it (Young, 2010, p.55). The central advocator of this dispute was Athanasius, who questioned how Arius’ belief allowed for salvation through Jesus Christ, which is a key orthodox belief identified within the Bible. Accordingly, this essay will critically evaluate the heretical opinion of Arius and determine how this Arian understanding was discarded by Athanasius and the Nicene Creed. It is important to note that the Arian thought that will be assessed is primarily presented to us by Athanasius, which will emphasise the conflicting orthodoxy/heretical opinion that was held. In addition to this, the essay will determine how the establishment of the creed at the Council of Nicaea, which was greatly influenced by Athanasius (McGrath 2001, p,12), was a failed attempt to expel all aspects of Arian heresy but a success in uniting Christians.

The fact that St. Isidore fails to provide any distinct spiritual standardisation of the bible’s teachings may link to why the Church had such a violent relationship towards religious minorities – because it fails to provide any philosophical justification for individual interpretation of the bible. He goes no further than what the bible explicitly implies, and does little to enlighten the reader to what any further meaning could be found. This gap in standardisation, that contemporary authorities would have displayed when referencing this book, arguably allowed these fringe groups to form as they could find their own figurative explanation of the Christian texts, rather than having to rely upon earlier works for guidance. St. Isidore’s work may have addressed the contemporary issue of Arianism, but it could not be viably used in response to modern heretical groups, which had done much to evolve into a properly justified belief systems. Therefore, according to the philosophical interpretation forwarded here by Peters, an inability to control the spirituality of the individual began the creation of philosophical opposition to ecclesiastical powers in the 11th

Irenaeus made an impact on christianity by being both a mediator within the church, and a defender of orthodoxy from outside heretics. His theology placed an emphasis on unity, and authority. Influencial in a time of dispute between eastern and western churches, and a gnostic uprising, Irenaeus of Lyons served as a link that held christianity together, and controlled the growth of gnosticism. According to Irenaeus, gnostics particularily Valentinus gnostics, were considered 'Heretics'. Their belief in dualism was in his view, a perverted twist on true faith. His most known work is a five part refutation of gnosticism entitled Adversus Haereses (Against Heresies). Untill the discovery of gnostic documents at Nag Hammadi near Egypt in

During a time where Gnostic ideology was one of the heresies gaining momentum, Tertullian and Irenaeus were two of the individuals that brilliantly defended the faith. They saw Gnosticism through the same lens as many other Church Fathers, as nothing else but a heresy. In their time this was a real threat to the true faith that was laid out for them through the Scriptures and through the oral tradition passed down by the apostles. Like many heresies, Gnosticism started off within a Christian foundation. However, what makes it more interesting is that Gnosticism as philosophy or the ideology as a whole may have predated Christianity since we see some epistles arguing against some of the Gnostic principles (Kelly 23). To further refute the heresy, Irenaeus and Tertullian had a tremendous contribution in the development of Christian apologetics. While similar, many have credited Irenaeus to his ecclesiological development and Tertullian to his Christological development in the early Church.

In this paper I examine George Gemistos Plethon's defense in his De Differentiis of Plato's conception of God as superior to that of Aristotle's. (2) Plethon asserts that the Platonic conception of God is more consistent with Orthodox Christian theology than the Aristotelian conception. This claim is all the more interesting in light of the fact that Plethon is, as it turns out, a pagan. I argue that Plethon takes the position he does because his interpretation of the Platonic God better fits his own neo-pagan theological conceptions. Part of the evidence for this is supplied by the first English translation of Plethon's Summary of the Doctrines of Zoroaster and Plato.

The acceptance from expressing religious logic arouses deliberation in society. Throughout history, theological debates were generated from the discussion of God’s exact nature and accordance with his son, Jesus Christ. Even though the trinity has been agreed upon as a secret above human comprehension, this is naturally misleading due to its complexity. The beliefs surrounding the Holy Spirit were neglected due to the

Through the Christmas sermons of Pope Leo the Great the faithful are instructed about a variety of topics ranging from the salvation of all through the Incarnate Word to the denial of various heresies such as Arianism and Manichaeism. While Leo enumerates different points in his sermons, a few themes lend themselves to answering the question, “who is Christ.” Discussion of the Incarnation is inherently present in these sermons because they are given at the joyful feast of the Nativity, but this subject is of great importance to Leo in reference to the denial of the Christian truth about Christ’s nature and birth. In reference to the Incarnation, Leo highlights the fact the Word Incarnate has two full natures in one hypostasis and this is found most prominent in the sermons because Leo is responding to challenges of Christ’s fully being God and fully man but devoid of the taint of sin, and the denial of Mary as theotokos by Nestorius. These sermons give Leo space to denounce falsehoods about Christ and reaffirm the reality of a dual natured hypostatic union who came as the salvation for the sins of Adam and all after him.

The Christian faith has truly never been freed from its bondage to Gnostic chains. Today we see Gnosticism’s manifestation in our dismal eschatology – rather than adopting the early Church’s hope for “the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come,” the masses aspire to an ethereal bliss in a heavenly beyond.

We, as human beings, have certain beliefs, ideas, and principles that each and every one of us claim to be true. We also, however, have everything else that comes along with being man, to name a few, concupiscence, death, fear and anger, which we can sum up in the one word “evil”. We, as men, may have a tendency towards evil, but there is still hope, for we also have a desire to do good. Sometimes it is difficult though for a man to distinguish which is good and which is evil. For example, in light of the book The Robe, a man might justify his renouncing Christ as a means of saving his life. We, as Catholics, however, know that it would be a “good” to lose our life for the sake of Christ’s kingdom. Luke 9:24 says, “ For whoever want to save their life will lose it, but whoever loses their life for me will save it.”We must have courage and trust in Christ to lose our life for Him, for it is no small thing to be a martyr for the sake of His Church. Here, on earth, we are bound by these evils and though we may be considered free, in the sense that we are not enslaved by men, we truly are enslaved by sin and all of the temptations that come with it. We will not be free of this enslavement until we experience true joy and freedom in Heaven, when we are finally in Christ’s presence. As His followers, however, we must spread His Word while we are on earth for the salvation of souls. It works like this: if I told my friend about Jesus, and she proceeded to tell her family and

There are many who insist that the doctrine of the Triune God is absent from the scriptures. This claim often suggests that Trinitarian doctrine is a mere innovation by the Church in later times rather than a real and solid foundation for Christianity. In the Orthodox Church, the scripture plays an extremely important role. While it is not the only tool that the Church uses, it is a vital part of the Church’s Tradition. In the Johannine and Pauline writings, we see a Trinitarian theology that is very similar to the doctrine held by the Church today. While there is a clear distinction and uniqueness to each of the persons of the Trinity, it also clear that the authors’ intentions are to show their equality.

In their quest for the good life, the ancient world was consumed with the questions concerning a good human being, a good society, and the definition of god. In answering these questions, it is understandable that religion would be at the forefront of society. In the Medieval period, the Roman Catholic Church dominated the lives of the people. But when the Renaissance broke ties with these “dark ages,” it also broke ties with the church. At the center of these movements was a key question for Christianity: “where salvation comes from.” The Roman Catholic Church, the Renaissance, and the Reformation all worked through this idea of salvation, and in answering it, ultimately fragmented the church.

Plato is undoubtedly one of the world’s most widely read and studied philosophers, as he laid the foundations of Western Philosophy and science—influencing the world generations beyond his time. His influences can be seen in a multitude of subjects—aesthetics, political philosophy, cosmology, epistemology, the philosophy of language, and even theology. Although Plato was Greek, and the Greeks are not inherently Christian, multiple aspects of his philosophy are compatible, even illuminative, of the Christian faith. Another name that will ring a bell of familiarity is St. Augustine—one of the most important and well-known theologians in the history of the Christian religion. As St. Augustine dedicated his life to studying and writing intellectual foundations of Christianity in the West, his established knowledge of the Christian faith credits him with a strong status of influence. Many Christian philosophers, such as Augustine, have been impressed with Plato’s philosophy and its connection to Christian Theology. Although Augustine never directly read Plato’s work, he did read two of Plato’s followers’ work, Plotinus and Porphyry, in Latin translation, and makes claims of connection between Platonic philosophy and Christian beliefs. In this paper I will first explain the aspects of Plato’s philosophy that are most similar to those of Augustine’s Christianity, and I will describe in what way these are alike and unalike.