Race Religion And Representative Bureaucracy Literature Review

Systematic racism within education Institutions, such as the lack of adequate funding as well as subtle discrimination, continues to be the root of the problem that plagues this nation. Even though segregation was abolished in 1964, the lingering effects that remain are significant and cannot be passively mended. Although it is tempting to think that this prejudice is caused by a select few and not the many, it is clear that this problem holds more depth. Recent studies conducted by the National Education Studies (NEA) have proven that even in school’s African American students are often times targeted and punished at a significantly higher rate when compared to their white peers. The study states “Black students make up almost 40 percent of all school expulsions [in the] nation, and more than two thirds of students referred to police from schools are either black or Hispanic” (Blacks: Education Issues). This study conducted by the Department of Education, cabinet-level department of the United States

This chapter elaborates on how racism has a negative impact on African American education, in which has been happening for many decades and is currently taking place. Furthermore, it speaks about segregation and how it currently exists in different ways. Additionally, it speaks on how segregation not only exist in one school, but it likewise exists across the school districts. It speaks on how segregation in these schools has a negative impact on students’ academic success and future success.

Incarceration has negative effects on the education of black students. According to the National Association of State Budget Officers, it shows that elementary and high schools receive about 73 percent of their state funding from a discretionary fund, the exact same fund that colleges and universities count on for half of their budgets. However, $9 out of every $10 that support imprisonment come from the same pot of money. With tons of billions of dollars in prison spending annually, states are finding that there is simply less voluntary money available to invest in education, especially in these lean economic times. The school districts that are considered failing schools, which house a majority of minority students, are significantly impacted. Consequently, education systems for black students are designed to continue the school to prison pipeline. These despairing injustices do not end with the education systems, they are also prevalent in the job force.

In the book God and Race in American Politics, Mark Noll makes his thesis very clear. Noll states that “First, race has always been the most influential elements in American political history, and in many periods absolutely the most influential. Second, religion has always been crucial for the workings of race in American politics.” He proceeds to describe in detail how both of these thoughts make the decisions of Americans, and they go on to determine this powerful political influence. In American politics, we have yet to see a time where these two factors did not determine major political decisions. Throughout the book Noll continues to reveal

Brown vs. The Board of Education ruling in 1956 ruled that segregated schools are unconstitutional but it took a decade for black students to enter into white schools. This case first started out a black community declaring to have better education, improving schools and curriculum. Finally, the Brown vs. The Board of Education case was seen in the black communities to ensure equality in the black community. The author focuses on the closing the achievement gap of blacks and white in high school graduation from 1940-1980. African American has always been playing the catch up game due to the struggle for civil right equality.

Among the nation 's largest Division I universities, the graduation rate for black students was 44% in 2013, compared with 66% for white students (Marklein). This fact along with the article, A Letter to My Nephew, by James Baldwin from the stimulus material, sparked my interest. I began to research the general topic of African Americans in college. Baldwin wrote about the idea of white americans intentionally hindering the success of black americans. As he states that white americans did not expect african americans to aspire to excellence and made sure that african americans knew in as many ways as possible that they were worthless human beings. Researching more into this idea, I found a correlation between African American success

“The racial disparities within the two systems are so similar and so glaring that it becomes impossible not to connect them.” The causes of why they are so deeply connected lie within the educational system. “It is difficult to pinpoint the exact reason for the school-to-prison pipeline; however, the reasons are many, but the solutions are not as plentiful” (Travis). The best practices to implement into the educational system is to allow room for change and to not label students based on past experiences and history. Students cannot be expected to change if there is no opportunity or support for change. Another practice is to completely assess the individual as a whole before deciding a suitable administrative punishment. Teachers should not be quick to judge a person by their actions, but by the reason behind their actions. After pinpointing the source of their behavior, can the education officials truly begin rehabilitating student, but enables them to realize their mistake of their disciplinary actions. The education system needs to create a balance between a system which will provide discipline and reasonable punishment for each offense. Students should not be expelled for disruptive behavior and there should be equal punishment to every student when applicable. Be able to provide the much needed support to students instead of sending them home, to the police, or to juvenile detention centers. The statistics only worsen as minorities transition into adulthood and the educational system should decrease the number of minorities going through the school-to-prison pipeline and increase the number of graduates among minority students. “One and three African Americans and one and six Latinos males will be incarcerated in their lifetime”

Enrollment of Blacks in white universities and colleges increased initially after Brown v. Board of Education, through much struggle and government intervention, but after reaching its zenith in the 1970’s numbers started to decline. Economic disparities between Whites and Blacks have increased and one of the major factors is the unequal educational opportunities and the disparity in funding between schools in urban areas as opposed to suburban conclaves. Facts noted in the pre-ceding paragraph were taken from “The Battle for Education,” (pgs.

In the modern era, these perceived needs involve keeping the elite in power and keeping those of different races and lower social classes (the two of which often go hand-in-hand) at a disadvantage in schools and in the judicial system. This is not a singular phenomenon, as schools create an environment for children to organize themselves into groups, often based on race and social class. Even without students dividing themselves, school administrators may divide students. In his article "The New Jim Crow: Male and Female, South and North, from Cradle to Grave, Perception and Reality: Racial Disparity and Bias in America's Criminal Justice System," author Gary Ford also comments on the disadvantage non-white students share: “African- American students are far more likely than their white peers to be suspended, expelled, or

Although situational attribution prevails dispositional attribution within the Black male community, there are incongruous instances in which Black men have overcome the stigmas, relishing the social, economic, and political mobility they have achieved. However, even with social stability many prominent Black professionals still endure disenfranchisement. Looking strictly at the academia within a Black community, the National Center for Education Statistics reports that, “A majority of African-American males in the 4th, 8th, and 12th grades do not reach grade-level proficiency in reading, mathematics, history, and science,” (NCES, 2007, 2009). The hurdles

The theoretical framework chosen to guide my research in analyzing predictors of success in higher education among African American students is Critical Race Theory (CRT), with an emphasis in education. Critical Race Theory in Education (CRTE) evolved from CRT, which is derivative of Critical Legal Studies (CLS), a 1970’s movement which “sought to expose and challenge the views that legal reasoning was neutral, value free, and unaffected by social, and economic relations, political forces, or culture phenomena” (Brown & Jackson, 2013, p. 9). CLS scholars successfully confirmed that personal biases of judges compromised verdicts in legal cases, claiming that America’s legal system only reinforces an oppressive social order benefiting the dominant race more than the oppressed race (Brown & Jackson, 2013). CRTE scholars is indebted to CRT scholars (which is indebted to CLS scholars), thus scholars of CRTE should be well versed in the history of CRT (and CLS).

With the creation of affirmative action policy, the election of the United States’ first African American President, and debate concerning reparations for slavery, twenty-first century America appears to have largely disowned its iniquitous history seated in centuries-long mistreatment and intolerance of non-white, minority peoples. Though the overt designs of slavery and Jim Crow no longer mare the American cultural landscape, the covert racist and classist machinations of bygone individual agents and national policies persist—though in lesser forms—within the nation’s paramount cultural institution: its education system. African American and Hispanic students consistently score lower on standardized exams—which determine grade advancement, college admission, and professional success--than white students (Ford).

As Tyson (2013) pointed out, students of color often receive a lower quality education. Palmer (2010) furthers this notion detailing Black male experience within education. He first notes that American education has historically been less proactive in supporting Blacks. Further, academic research has often described Black males as “endangered, uneducable, dysfunctional, and dangerous” (109) within society and within educational settings. He continues by saying that the issues that hinder Black males from graduation begin early within their educational experience. First, teachers and counselors often write-off Black males in regards to having successful futures. Secondly, Black males have higher suspension rates than their White counterparts. Next, Palmer (2010) points out that Black males are underrepresented in gifted and advanced placement courses, due to ability tracking standards. In opposition, he points out that Black males are disproportionately present in special education courses based on perceived behavioral issues and learning disabilities. Given this experience, Palmer (2010) found that only one out of 15 Black males were adequately prepared for college education, which is in close relation with the invisibility of Black males within the global

In the current American society, racism is experienced in many ways; at the workplace, neighborhoods, and social events. In the last few decades, the justice and criminal management system in the US has been accused of discriminating againstAfrican Americans. As earlier highlighted, a significant portion of black teenagers

Ideally, governmental policies aim to defend citizens of a specific territory by setting laws that promote and implement egalitarianism. Although the federal government of the United States is said to strive to construct a homogeneous nation when it comes to equal rights and opportunities for its citizens in different states and cities, there have been numerous historical occurrences that demonstrate opposing aims. Often times in American history, unselected natural characteristics such as race and ethnicity have served as keen factors permitting unequal treatment of individuals and at creating barriers placing minority groups at a disadvantage when attempting to practice influence over the government. “Race has been a long-standing and stubborn dividing line in local, state, and national politics in the United States” (Rogers 6). Because of such instances, today, many political representatives attempt to practice descriptive representation which promotes racial unity. While this is an enormous step, indicative of progression, corrupt politicians many times can use such incentives to implement manipulative and unscrupulous tactics to gain support from minority groups. In addition, the attempts to form race-based alliances have had very little success amongst minority groups as racial similarities are not significant enough to unify different minority groups. Minorities can be said to place themselves at a disadvantage because of their vulnerability and stubborn inability to