The Incidence Of Cervical Cancer

The human papillomavirus (HPV) is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) that is very common throughout the United States and worldwide (World Health Organization (WHO), 2016). There are over 100 different forms of the virus with 13 of these types being capable of causing cancer (WHO, 2016). HPV can lead to the development of serious health problems. Theses health problems are especially an issue for adolescent women due to the highly increasing STD rates among this age group (Kostas-Polston, Johnson-Mallard & Berman, 2012). There is a vaccine for many of the common types of HPV, however, many parents are refusing to vaccinate their daughters for various reasons. With the rising cases of STDs, less birth

Cervical cancer is when there are malignant cells present in the cervix; it is developed in the lining of the cervix. A cervix is a narrow opening located at the bottom of the uterus that leads into the vagina. Cervical cancer mostly affects women between the ages of 40 and 55. This cancer can be prevented by screening for precancerous cells, and it can also be cured if it is detected at an early stage. Over the past few decades the number of cervical cancer cases has declined dramatically due to a more widespread screening of the disease. Today, it is estimated that 10,000 new

Human papillomavirus is currently affecting the entire US population without discrimination. To mitigate this, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended that adolescent girls be required to vaccinate at age 11 – 12 while boys were optional (Kepka et al., 2016). Today, adolescent boys are required to vaccinate too. The focus of this research is about adolescent boys age 12 – 15 in the United States (US). However, the study is not focused on assessing the population at risk. Instead, the focus will be on the state and territory immunization programs that are responsible for meeting the Healthy People 2020 goals for HPV vaccination in males. The sample size will be extracted from the population.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC's) National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program (NBCCEDP) provides access to breast and cervical cancer screening to underserved women in all 50 states. NBCCEDP programs use population-based approaches such as public education, patient navigation, and outreach, care coordination to increase screening and reach underserved and uninsured populations. This program provides cervical screening for 21 to 64 year and breast screening for 40 to 64 years. Since this program initiated in 1991 almost 3.7 million women has been screened and 44,885 cases of breast cancer, 2,554 cervical cancers and123, 563 cervical precursor lesions have been detected (Benard et.al , 2011). NBCCEDP use Conceptual Framework supports a collection of strategies to reach uninsured women, including program controlling, screening and diagnostic services. Team members of the NBCCEDP work collaboratively to provide breast and cervical cancer screening, diagnostic evaluation, treatment and referrals. “The program's continued success depends in large part on the complementary efforts of a variety of national partner organizations, as well as on state and community partners” (CDC, 2012). The key success for these two cancer screening programmes

The incidence of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) in my local community Lockport, Illinois is one out of every five people have HPV and due to the vaccinations to prevent HPV, Illinois ranks 48th among the United States for incidences of HPV (Manchir, 2013). HPV is a sexually transmitted infection that is transmitted through sexual contact. HPV is transmitted during vaginal, oral, or anal sex and on rare occasions, through birth during delivery (Illinois Department of Public Health [IDPH], 2013). Surprisingly, 50 percent of men and women that are active sexually will acquire HPV during their lifetime! HPV has affected 20 million Americans and an astounding, six million additional people will become infected every year (Illinois Department of Public Health [IDPH], 2013). Although Lockport Illinois has a lower amount of people with HPV, as a public health nurse, I realize this is an issue that needs to be addressed in my local community. Awareness is the key to prevention. Teenagers, parents, and all adults need to

Prophylactic vaccination against high risk human papilloma virus 16 and 18 represents an exciting means of protection against HPV related malignancy. However, this strategy alone, even if there is a level of cross protection against other oncogenic viruses, cannot completely prevent cervical cancer. In some countries cervical screening programs have reduced the incidence of invasive cervical cancer by up to 80 percent although this decline has now reached a plateau with current cancers occurring in patients who have failed to attend for screening or where the sensitivity of the tests have proved inadequate. Cervical screening is inevitably associated with significant anxiety for the many women who require investigation and treatment following abnormal cervical cytology. However, it is vitally important to stress the need for continued cervical screening to complement vaccination in order to optimize prevention in vaccines and prevent cervical cancer in older women where the value of vaccination is currently unclear. It is likely that vaccination will ultimately change the natural history of HPV disease by reducing the influence of the highly oncogenic types HPV 16 and 18. In the long term this is likely to lead to an increase in recommended screening intervals. HPV vaccination may also reduce

The “Healthy Border 2010” consisted of 11 focus areas with 21 objectives regarding public health problems that the inhabitants of the US- Mexico border were facing. Some of the objectives were met and some were not. To meet the unmet objectives of health promotion and disease prevention, the framework of “Healthy Border 2020” was constructed. This framework is composed of 5 focus areas, which are chronic and degenerative diseases; infectious diseases; maternal and child health; substance abuse and mental health conditions; and injuries. Cancer is the second leading cause of death world-wide and cervical cancer is the third most common cancer (9%) in women as well as seventh (4%) among all cancer deaths. (Chabra 2016). One of the objectives of “Healthy Border 2010” was to reduce cervical cancer death by 30%in the United States and 20% in Mexico. This objective was not completely but about to meet in Mexico by the year 2010 however, the cervical cancer death rate in the United States has not met its target by the deadline. Therefore, the area of cervical cancer is an important area of concern in the US-Mexico border. New objectives for cervical carcinoma has been set in the “Healthy Border 2020”. The new objectives include decreasing the mortality in women of 25 years or older by 20%; maintaining screening for women between 25 to 64 years at 80%; screen for women at 21 years and older; maintaining the coverage of HPV vaccinations for girls 9-11 years at 90%. Current screening

Assumptions for this analysis are conservative. The number of death prevented could be underestimated as less common HPV-related cancers, for example, anal cancer, are not included in the analysis. Additionally, race and ethnicity disparities could impact the mortality rate. Since black women have the highest cervical cancer mortality rate compared to other races ("The HPV Vaccine: Access and Use in the U.S.," 2015), and Georgia has a relatively large black population, the number of death caused by cervical cancer could be higher than estimated. Therefore, cost-effectiveness of HPV vaccine is potentially underestimated and the cost of each death prevented could be

Numerous studies have been conducted on various facets of human papillomavirus (HPV) in African-American females. These include focusing on the etiology of HPV, predicting its occurrence, describing the health status of those affected, and controlling its occurrence. Per contra, the number of African-American women infected with HPV is substantially higher than other populations such as Caucasians, American Indian/ Alaska Natives, and Asian/ Pacific Islanders. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2012) suggests that the rate of African-American females infected with HPV-associated cancer, cervical carcinoma, is 9.9 per 10,000 people, with a 95% Cl [9.7, 10.2]. To understand the extent of HPV infection in African-American

Schmidt and Parsons investigated the trends of HPV vaccination, interests, and reasons for non-vaccination in young adult women. Results of testing showed that women who had received one or more doses of the vaccine were more likely to be between the ages of 18-21, to be non-hispanic white, to have private health insurance and a usual source of care that has not been delayed, and to have more than a high-school education. Among women 18-26 years of age, the HPV vaccine uptake increased from 11.6% in 2008 to 34.1% in 2012. In 2008 and

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Human papillomavirus (HPV) infects roughly 20 million individuals in the United States with 6.1 million new cases each year. There is no cure for HPV, only treatment for associated health problems. There are more than 30 strains of HPV that affect more than half of sexually active individuals in their lifetime. Public health risks involve several types of HPV leading to precancerous lesions and causing 70% of cervical cancer. Cervical cancer, the second most common cancer, affects many women globally. In the United States, nearly 10,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer annually and 3,700 of those women die. It has been reported by American Cancer Society that with early

HPV vaccinations have been involved in some heated debates involving the general public and the government for some time now; whether the vaccine is worth being administered to young girls is the underlying question and if so at what cost. In the articles “HPV Vaccine Texas Tyranny” and “The HPV Debate” both authors Mike Adams and Arthur Allen provide enlightening information on why the HPV vaccinations should not be mandated through legislation, Adams conveys his bias and explains how the government is over stepping its boundaries when it comes to the publics’ health while Allen on the other hand, is more opt to present analytical data on previous cases similar to the one he is currently facing.

Among the many arguments for mandatory HPV vaccination, the foremost is that it is an important medical achievement and a major public health milestone. This vaccine has proven to be one-hundred percent effective in preventing the 4 HPV strains that are responsible for seventy percent of cervical cancers and ninety percent of genital warts. In addition, no serious side effects have been identified. Because this vaccine is a preventive measure, administration before onset of sexual activity is ideal; however, even females who have been sexually active can still benefit from this vaccination (Perkins et al., 2010). Nationally and internationally, the HPV vaccine will significantly reduce disease burden by reducing monetary and psychological costs of invasive procedures that remove precancerous and cancerous lesions. By combining vaccination with routine Pap smear screening, these public health efforts have the remarkable opportunity to eradicate cervical cancer (Ramet et al., 2011).

Cervical cancer remains a public health problem that affects women worldwide. Cervical cancer is rated as the fourth type of cancer worldwide and the second most common cancer in women living in developing countries. In Europe, cervical cancer ranks as the sixth leading cancer of female cancers and second most common cancer among women aged between 15 to 44 years of age. Early detection and treatment are important for the prevention of morbidity and mortality related to cervical cancer. International studies conducted suggest that cervical cancer-related morbidity and mortality are highest among immigrant populations and that immigrant women may be less likely than non-immigrant women to participate in cervical cancer screening. These studies indicate that Somali women, in particular, constitute one immigrant group that is less likely to participate in cervical cancer screening. However, little information is known about the perceptions of and perspectives on cervical cancer screening as well as the barriers to uptake of cervical cancer screening among Somali women in Oslo. The aim of the study is to explore perceptions of and

In the United States, it is one of the eight-most common cancer of women. According to researches, the data shows that Hispanic women are significantly more likely to be diagnosed with cervical cancer than the general population and their median age at diagnosis is 48. In 1998, about 12,800 women were diagnosed in the US and about 4,800 died. Among cancers of the female reproductive tract, it is less common than endometrial cancer and ovarian cancer. The rates of new cases in the United States was 7 per 100,000 women in 2004. Cervical cancer deaths decreased by approximately 74% in the