Transgenerational Epigenetics

Epigenetics, essentially, affects how genes are read by cells, and subsequently how they produce proteins.

Epigenetics is a field where advances are being made daily. Epigenetics is defined as “heritable changes in gene expression that occur without a change in DNA sequence,” as stated by Dr. Alan Wolffe. A way in which we can understand this definition is by taking the analogy of a card game. The cards, the DNA sequence, have been dealt and will not change, however we need to understand how to play the cards, the rules, which is epigenetics. The guidelines can vary and completely change the way the card game is played and who comes out on top. The rules that are studied and understood through this research paper are those of DNA methylation and chromatin. These changes can produce

This paper will discuss how phenotypes are driven by DNA inheritance in offspring by the genes known as alleles. Each parent provides an allele although on allele is hidden in one parent and can be passed on to his or her offspring. The information presented in the monohybrid cross that shows where one parent has the hidden allele of a gene that carries the trait of orange eyes that disappears and reemerges later in the genetic make-up of an offspring. The inheritance in the offspring is driven by the DNA of that individuals parents and the genetic traits one is born with are decided by the dominant and recessive genes of his or her parents (www.nature.com, 2014).

Do the experiences or events that your parents, grandparents or even great grandparents had in the past affect your genes? Why do some humans have mental health issues and others do not? Behavioral epigenetics examines how nurture shapes nature, where nature refers to biological heredity and nurture refers to everything that occurs during the animal 's lifespan. Epigenetics is the study of alterations in an organism caused by modifications of gene expressions instead of alterations of the genetic code itself. Behavioral epigenetics is the field of study, which analyzes the role epigenetics have in shaping human or animal behavior. Epigenetics works by wrapping DNA around histone octamers to form nucleosomes. Genes will be transcribed or silenced depending on the spacing of nucleosomes, which is determined by complex processes, including post-translational modification of DNA and histones as well as the large numbers of chromatin regulatory proteins recruited to interact with these modifications (Nestler). Behavioral epigenetics explains why humans and animals behave the way they do, not by changing the DNA, but by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code, which in turn changes behavior in multiple generations.

Identical twins who are raised in different environments turn out very different as adults. One twin grows up to be a great citizen, has a job, and pays for taxes. While, the other twin grows up and goes through different route by not paying taxes and not being a model citizen. The twins have the same original DNA and have the same traits for their genetic elements but they grew up in different environments. For species are we a product of our genes or the environment, which is known as epigenetics. Epigenetics are influenced and studied by the nature vs nature, health, aging, and parental care. The primary focus of the paper is to determine how epigenetics has an impact on health, inheritance, parental care, and childhood development.

Epigenetics is the study of reactions that switch part of the genome at specific locations and time, and what factors influence them. A cell has a sum of signals that help on stabilizing the gene expression; these are epigenetics tags that are accumulated through cell development. While for decades scientists thought the new embryo’s epigenome was made from scratch it is now know that parents’ epigenetic tags play an important role in the life of the new creature. Most of the epigenetic tags are erased during the process of development in a process called “reprogramming” leaving the majority of the cell in a blank state though a few genes make it through the process without successful removal of the tags.

D. Steinberg (2006) that environment has the potential to alter genes as show in epigenetic studies; thereby giving credence to nurture playing a role in

By studying Epigenetics, we learn about the changes in heritable genome function without changes in the DNA sequence itself. Transgenerational inheritance requires a chromosomal or epigenetic change in the germline allowing the information to be passed on from one generation to another (Anway et al 2005a). In order for epigenetic marks to be passed down, the gametes need to conserve their epigenomes by avoiding two reprogramming events; in the gamete and zygote. It has generally been accepted that epigenetic marks are removed and re-established in the preceding generation, thus not inherited. However, studies being carried out on model organisms are challenging this concept and suggesting that this may not be entirely correct. There may be an incomplete erasure of epigenetic marks resulting in transgenerational epigenetic inheritance (Youngson and Whitelaw 2008). The present generations were being synthesised in the womb of their grandmother. Therefore, did the food my grandmother ate affect my development? Could the air we breathe affect our grandchildren? Many questions are still unknown in this field. The environment and external factors may cause additional information to be added on top of the genome resulting in phenotypic variation and disease leading to transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. Epigenetic modifications of the germline are not only important to evolutionary biologists and disease aetiology but also ecologists, as incomplete epigenetic changes can

The PBS video called “Epigenetics” brought to light some very interesting views. Through rats scientist have been able to see the works of epigenetics and believe that the finding have led to the idea that the change in genetics has the same effect on humans. The most interesting part of the video was that younger pairs of twins have very similar genes, but the older pairs of twin have more epigenetic difference in their genes. This validates the idea that the epigenetic difference in old twins is caused by environmental factors such as lifestyle choices. The idea also alludes to the idea that our parents and grandparents healthy and epigenetics may affect my heath and my children’s health. This leads to the inclination that my child’s health

Epigenetics is a fairly recent study of how the environment affects our gene expression; the word epi meaning “above”, hence epigenetics literally meaning “above genetics”. There are arguments whether or not it was lifestyle or genetics that affects our life expectancy. With epigenetics, there has been a realisation that our genes and the environment are much more closely related than previously thought. It’s some kind of middle ground.

It is often thought that our DNA is a concert blue print and the way we personally engage with the environment has no effect on our future generation. However through experiments and recent studies, scientists have discovered external environmental factors can effect ones DNA sequence. It was found that genes have the ability to switch on and off and affect how cells read genes. This new avenue is called Epigenetics. Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression. It describes the outward phenotypic appearance that is not the result to changes in the DNA sequence but instead, changes to the chemical tags that overlay the genome. Epigenetics is often described as the missing link between the environment an individual is exposed

However, there are some recent studies showcasing epigenetic alterations at work in humans as well. Regarding early life experiences, Project Ice Storm discovered that prenatal maternal stress can have broad epigenetics effects on the unborn child’s genome which could persist to adolescence and adulthood, and that researches have also provided evidence that the likelihood of a myriad of chronic illnesses and behavioural disorders in adulthood could stem from prenatal and postnatal environmental factors (Jirtle & Skinner, 2007; Cao-Lei et al., 2015). Also, a study on the childhood abuse victims who later committed suicide and non-childhood abuse victims who also later committed suicide discovered that the abuse victims had portrayed some stress-linked epigenetic profiles (McGowan et al., 2009). Regarding later life experiences, a monozygotic twin study discovered that twins are indifferent in their early-life gene expression yet substantial variances are portrayed in the epigenetic profiles of more mature twins (Fraga et al., 2005). These studies represent how an individual’s environmental surroundings can influence their epigenome which clearly demonstrates the nature-nurture

Epigenetics can be hereditable or environmental factors that affect the expression of genes and lead to changes in gene expression. Unlike genetics, epigenetics does not only have to do with which genes are passed down to the offspring and the DNA sequence. The environmental conditions of the offspring’s parents impact the genes in their eggs and sperms by “switching on” certain genes and “switching of” others (Dowshen). Since the genes expression of the gametes are affect, the phenotypes of the offspring will change. Even in a person’s lifetime, environmental factors such as stress, chemical exposure, and diet can continue to impact gene expression through DNA methylation. During DNA methylation, a methyl group is randomly added to a 5-carbon cytosine ring, making 5-methylcytosine and these groups inhibit transcription. (Cheriyedath). Due the fact that transcription is not possible, the expressing of the genes in that section of the DNA strand will be suppressed. The attachment of the methyl group to DNA is not determined, which means that

Although not often discuessed in grade school, evolutionary mechanisms span further than simply the inheritance of “A-T-C-G” DNA nucleotides from our parents. Epigenetics is a specialized field within genetics that focuses on the evolutionary changes induced by genetic factors, such as transposons, and how they can cause an alteration of gene expression and disease. The study of the human epigenome is still relatively new, and exponentially advancing. With this being said, researchers still have questions regarding this complex evolutionary mechanism's implications in microevolution, and potentially macroevolution (Skinner, 2015).

Studies have shown that our ancestors experience’s may leave a mark on our genes. Geneticists were surprised to find that epigenetic change could be passed down from parent to child. A study from Randy Jirtle of Duke University showed that when female mice are fed a diet rich in methyl groups, the fur pigment of subsequent offspring is permanently altered without changing the DNA. Madrid, Szyf and Meaney considered a hypothesis: “If diet and chemicals can cause epigenetic changes, could certain experiences — child neglect, drug abuse or other severe stresses — also set off epigenetic changes to the DNA inside the neurons of a person’s brain?” This study states that the biology of DNA will stay the same how ever psychological and behavioral tendencies are inherited.