Question: What are two reasons why middle and high school students may struggle with reading and literacy? unique challenges. The poorest readers, for example, often struggle because they are unableto identify single speech sounds in spoken whole words, so they must have their phonologicalskills strengthened. If phonological skills improve, students are better equipped to match writtensymbols to sounds, to spell, and to develop and expand their vocabulary.For those students whose reading skills are less severely impaired, prioritizing multisyllable wordreading and reading fluency better matches their needs. And, if students can decipher printedwords with sufficient accuracy and speed, then educators must aggressively address vocabularydeficiencies, background information required for comprehension, interpretation of academiclanguage, and text reading strategies. Incentives to read challenging material independently, bothin and out of school, will be critical.It is not a student's chronological age or grade level that should determine the design of remedialinstruction. Rather, it is the student's level of reading skill and profile of strengths and weaknessesacross the language spectrum that determines the content of lessons.Intensive InterventionIf remedial reading instruction occurs as a supplemental, noncredit-bearing class, a student mayreceive two or three brief sessions in a resource room per week. Intensive instruction, however, canmean more than one period daily and, often, more than one year if the goal is to move the studentcloser to grade level. Teaching all essential components of language, reading, and writing takestime. There are no shortcuts for overcoming huge and chronic gaps in skill development andreading experience.Direct Teaching of Language StructureThe Building Blocks of Spoken and Written Words10-The majority of adolescent poor readers who read below the 30th percentile need some level ofdirect instruction in two foundational skills: the ability to map speech sounds to letters and letterpatterns in print, and the ability to recognize printed words accurately and automatically-out ofcontext as well as in context. ¹0 The poorest readers may still be confused about letters and sounds.They need systematic practice decomposing words into their component phonemes, syllables,and meaningful parts (morphemes), and recognizing how those linguistic units are represented inprint. The techniques for teaching older students, however, should differ from those used to teachyounger learners,¹1 or students are likely to rebel against "babyish" tasks.The first rule isto treat studentslike young adults.The first rule is to treat students like young adults. Talk about linguistics and languagestudy. Don't hesitate to use adult terminology, such as "phoneme deletion,""consonant digraph," "schwa," and "morpheme." Explain phonics and spellingwithin the framework of the history of English. Spice up the story with videos aboutOld English and Middle English pronunciation. Explain and demonstrate how thespeech-to-print correspondence system works with skits, cartoons, animation,games, and illustrations.Multisensory engagement will hold students' attention, with simultaneous listening, speaking,moving, looking, and writing or typing of symbols. Speech sounds (phonemes) should be learnedwith reference to their articulation. ¹2 Thus, students should look in mirrors as they practice phonemediscrimination and production. They should be able to imitate a good model and then listen tothemselves produce, segment, or blend speech sounds.4 Phonemic drills are short tune-ups that include games, such as reverse-a-word ("Say 'teach'; thensay it with the first sound last and the last sound first-'cheat' "). Students can tap the number ofsounds in a segmented word by using their hands or manipulating tokens-either on a computerscreen or on their desks. Each sound in a word is represented by one tap or one token. Studentscan tap the first sound with their index finger and thumb, the second sound with their middle fingerand thumb, the third sound with their ring finger and thumb, and so forth. Vowels or consonantsthat are spelled with more than one letter (/sh/, /ch/, /th/, /ck/, /oi/) are represented with onefinger tap. This technique helps students identify all the sounds in a word.To learn the correspondences between phonemes and graphemes (letters and letter groups thatrepresent single speech sounds), mapping sounds to symbols on a grid works well. So do wordsorting activities with immediate corrective feedback; selection of correctly spelled words tomatch spoken words; and writing or typing dictated words into meaningful passages. Productionof written words (encoding) reinforces and enhances reading recognition.Even if students are working with basics, the focus of instruction can be the six regular syllabletypes and their combinations in longer words. For example, closed syllables, which make up halfthe syllables in English spelling, contain short vowels and end in one or more consonants. Closedsyllables can be blended to form words such as com-mit-ment and ac-com-plish-ment.As students progress with syllable recognition and spelling, teachers can start to emphasizemorphemes-prefixes, roots, and suffixes-from the Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek layers ofEnglish. Beginning with inflections that may change the spelling of a base word (fine, finest; begin,beginning; study, studied), students can analyze words into units that often link meaning andspelling. (The fact that the words "conversation," "versatile," and "universe," for example, all sharethe root "vers" can open a discussion about the aspect of meaning they all share.) Instruction mustbe cumulative, sequential, and systematic, so that students overcome the bad habit of relying oncontext and guessing to decode unknown words.Reading Fluency and Word RecognitionTwo critical abilities-sound-symbol decoding andautomatic recognition of words-are established ingood readers. Poor readers, in contrast, are usuallytoo slow, even after they become accurate, andthis slowness generally reflects the lack of practicewith reading. 13 Some poor readers, however, arejust not wired to retrieve words from memory asquickly as others. These students may continue tobe slow readers and may need many more practiceopportunities before word recognition is automatic.Allowances must be made for their slower readingrate; for example, audiobooks and interactive novellasare helpful resources when fatigue sets in.Older poor readers canusually increase theirreading speed withpractice at several levels:sound-symbol association,word reading, and phraseand sentence reading.Older poor readers can usually increase their reading speed with practice at several levels: sound-symbol association, word reading, and phrase and sentence reading. Quick speed drills, especiallyin computer-driven games, can build automatic recognition of words, syllables, and morphemes.Reading with a tape recording, choral reading of dramatic material, and rereading familiar textcan all support reading fluency. Above all, however, students must read as much as possible, andthey must read independently material that is not too difficult if they are to make up the huge gapbetween themselves and other students. 145

Question

Question: What are two reasons why middle and high school students may struggle with reading and literacy? unique challenges. The poorest readers, for example, often struggle because they are unableto identify single speech sounds in spoken whole words, so they must have their phonologicalskills strengthened. If phonological skills improve, students are better equipped to match writtensymbols to sounds, to spell, and to develop and expand their vocabulary.For those students whose reading skills are less severely impaired, prioritizing multisyllable wordreading and reading fluency better matches their needs. And, if students can decipher printedwords with sufficient accuracy and speed, then educators must aggressively address vocabularydeficiencies, background information required for comprehension, interpretation of academiclanguage, and text reading strategies. Incentives to read challenging material independently, bothin and out of school, will be critical.It is not a student's chronological age or grade level that should determine the design of remedialinstruction. Rather, it is the student's level of reading skill and profile of strengths and weaknessesacross the language spectrum that determines the content of lessons.Intensive InterventionIf remedial reading instruction occurs as a supplemental, noncredit-bearing class, a student mayreceive two or three brief sessions in a resource room per week. Intensive instruction, however, canmean more than one period daily and, often, more than one year if the goal is to move the studentcloser to grade level. Teaching all essential components of language, reading, and writing takestime. There are no shortcuts for overcoming huge and chronic gaps in skill development andreading experience.Direct Teaching of Language StructureThe Building Blocks of Spoken and Written Words10-The majority of adolescent poor readers who read below the 30th percentile need some level ofdirect instruction in two foundational skills: the ability to map speech sounds to letters and letterpatterns in print, and the ability to recognize printed words accurately and automatically-out ofcontext as well as in context. ¹0 The poorest readers may still be confused about letters and sounds.They need systematic practice decomposing words into their component phonemes, syllables,and meaningful parts (morphemes), and recognizing how those linguistic units are represented inprint. The techniques for teaching older students, however, should differ from those used to teachyounger learners,¹1 or students are likely to rebel against &#34;babyish&#34; tasks.The first rule isto treat studentslike young adults.The first rule is to treat students like young adults. Talk about linguistics and languagestudy. Don't hesitate to use adult terminology, such as &#34;phoneme deletion,&#34;&#34;consonant digraph,&#34; &#34;schwa,&#34; and &#34;morpheme.&#34; Explain phonics and spellingwithin the framework of the history of English. Spice up the story with videos aboutOld English and Middle English pronunciation. Explain and demonstrate how thespeech-to-print correspondence system works with skits, cartoons, animation,games, and illustrations.Multisensory engagement will hold students' attention, with simultaneous listening, speaking,moving, looking, and writing or typing of symbols. Speech sounds (phonemes) should be learnedwith reference to their articulation. ¹2 Thus, students should look in mirrors as they practice phonemediscrimination and production. They should be able to imitate a good model and then listen tothemselves produce, segment, or blend speech sounds.4 Phonemic drills are short tune-ups that include games, such as reverse-a-word (&#34;Say 'teach'; thensay it with the first sound last and the last sound first-'cheat' &#34;). Students can tap the number ofsounds in a segmented word by using their hands or manipulating tokens-either on a computerscreen or on their desks. Each sound in a word is represented by one tap or one token. Studentscan tap the first sound with their index finger and thumb, the second sound with their middle fingerand thumb, the third sound with their ring finger and thumb, and so forth. Vowels or consonantsthat are spelled with more than one letter (/sh/, /ch/, /th/, /ck/, /oi/) are represented with onefinger tap. This technique helps students identify all the sounds in a word.To learn the correspondences between phonemes and graphemes (letters and letter groups thatrepresent single speech sounds), mapping sounds to symbols on a grid works well. So do wordsorting activities with immediate corrective feedback; selection of correctly spelled words tomatch spoken words; and writing or typing dictated words into meaningful passages. Productionof written words (encoding) reinforces and enhances reading recognition.Even if students are working with basics, the focus of instruction can be the six regular syllabletypes and their combinations in longer words. For example, closed syllables, which make up halfthe syllables in English spelling, contain short vowels and end in one or more consonants. Closedsyllables can be blended to form words such as com-mit-ment and ac-com-plish-ment.As students progress with syllable recognition and spelling, teachers can start to emphasizemorphemes-prefixes, roots, and suffixes-from the Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek layers ofEnglish. Beginning with inflections that may change the spelling of a base word (fine, finest; begin,beginning; study, studied), students can analyze words into units that often link meaning andspelling. (The fact that the words &#34;conversation,&#34; &#34;versatile,&#34; and &#34;universe,&#34; for example, all sharethe root &#34;vers&#34; can open a discussion about the aspect of meaning they all share.) Instruction mustbe cumulative, sequential, and systematic, so that students overcome the bad habit of relying oncontext and guessing to decode unknown words.Reading Fluency and Word RecognitionTwo critical abilities-sound-symbol decoding andautomatic recognition of words-are established ingood readers. Poor readers, in contrast, are usuallytoo slow, even after they become accurate, andthis slowness generally reflects the lack of practicewith reading. 13 Some poor readers, however, arejust not wired to retrieve words from memory asquickly as others. These students may continue tobe slow readers and may need many more practiceopportunities before word recognition is automatic.Allowances must be made for their slower readingrate; for example, audiobooks and interactive novellasare helpful resources when fatigue sets in.Older poor readers canusually increase theirreading speed withpractice at several levels:sound-symbol association,word reading, and phraseand sentence reading.Older poor readers can usually increase their reading speed with practice at several levels: sound-symbol association, word reading, and phrase and sentence reading. Quick speed drills, especiallyin computer-driven games, can build automatic recognition of words, syllables, and morphemes.Reading with a tape recording, choral reading of dramatic material, and rereading familiar textcan all support reading fluency. Above all, however, students must read as much as possible, andthey must read independently material that is not too difficult if they are to make up the huge gapbetween themselves and other students. 145

Accepted Answer

There are many reasons why middle and high school students might have trouble reading and writing,…