One of the major disadvantages of OFDM is the high Peak – to – Average power ratio of OFDM signal. These multi – carrier systems have a problem that Peak – to – Average power ratio increases with the increase of number of subcarrier, which causes poor efficiency or serious performance degradation to transmit power amplifier. Many PAPR reduction techniques have been proposed. These techniques can be mainly categorized into signal scrambling techniques and signal distortion techniques. In this topic, there is study OFDM system and short view of different PAPR reducing techniques like Clipping, Companding, Peak Windowing, Scrambling, Coding and Selective Mapping (SLM).
Key Words: OFDM, PAPR, SLM, PTS, etc
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Van Nee and Wild suggested peak windowing method. In this method it is possible to remove large peaks. Peak windowing reduces PAPRs as with respect to increasing the BER and out-of-band radiation. Clipping introduces PAPR reduction technique which is self interference The Peak windowing offers better PAPR reduction with better properties of spectrum. Peak Windowing technique provides better PAPR reduction with compare to clipping. [5] In peak windowing, multiplication of large signal peak with a specific window performed, for e.g.; Hamming window, Kaiser, Gaussian shaped, Cosine, etc.The output spectrum is a convolution of spectrum of the applied window with the original OFDM spectrum. Hence, the window should have to be as narrow band as possible, in opposition the window not be too long in the time domain because various signal samples are affected, this resulting increase in bit error rate (BER).[6] 4.1.2 Clipping and Filtering Technique
Figure 2 – Block diagram of Clipping and
This process of Fourier transform and back-transform establishes the essential frequency components of the temporal data while eliminating high-frequency noise. This is a powerful technique to:
Table.2 shown the best results of vertical resolution used in shorter pulse duration is better for the higher frequency and very similar for the 1 GHz, 800 MHz and 500 MHz. More which explains why the results obtained in Tables 3 was the same for both frequency. Because of the different materials used in the experiments metallic and wooden bars, the resolution show the metal bars are worsen, due to their higher electromagnetic contrast, amongst other things. The second reflector, so a bigger separation is needed to detect it as discrete events. This effect is more relevant when the reflectors are closer to the antennas and particular for the 500 MHz antenna (Table 3). The horizontal resolution obtained for the 1 GHz and 800 MHz is very similar and much better than for the 500 MHz. As expected, horizontal resolution worsens as the reflectors are moved away from the frequency, mainly because their footprint size gets larger. In radargrams (a) and (b) of Figs. 9, 11 and 13, the
A typical problem in OFDM based systems is a high Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR). The available RF power amplifiers usually have a limited linear dynamic range. This is not a problem for constant amplitude signals, however, in OFDM, due to IFFT operation, some of the sub-carriers add constructively to large amplitudes while others add destructively. The amplitude of the signals thus varies randomly and for large amplitude signals, non-linear amplifications cause errors. Therefore, error correction codes are employed. In HiperLan2, the data is coded with a convolutional encoder of rate 1/2. The convolutional encoder uses the industry-standard generator polynomials, g0 = 1338 and g1 = 1718, and is shown in Figure 4.3. The bit denoted as “A” is the first output from the encoder while the bit denoted “B” is the second one. Higher code rates are derived via puncturing. In puncturing, some of the encoded bits in the transmitter are removed
Fig.7-a) Total harmonic distortion versus input currents at 1 MHz. b) Total harmonic distortion versus input currents at 100 MHz. c) Total harmonic distortion versus input currents at 1 GHz (various amplitudes of I_x signal and a fixed amplitude of I_y signal).
A composite signal can be decomposed into individual sine waves called harmonies.Fourier analsis is done to decompose a signal.the decomposed signals have different amplitude,frequency and phase.A periodic signal has
Simulate or run the program in PSPICE Software. 4). Note the maximum output voltage and the cut off frequency from the graph displayed by PROBE graphics processor. 5). Compare the simulated value of the maximum voltage gain and the cut off frequency with the theoretical maximum voltage gain and the theoretical cut off frequency.
these subcarriers to a higher frequency band. Except for a multiplying constant (1=N), the above
The comparison of above three algorithms for 8, 16 and 32 bit operands with corresponding voltage and frequency are tabulated in table I
PM applications are designed to track all patient encounters in order to submit all claims to the insurance company to collect payments. PM applications also apply payments and denials. Â EHR contains all the patient's medical history and charts. It allows providers to easily access information which decisions about the patient. Each application works differently while one contains medical information on the patient the other collects the information and submits the claims to the insurance payer. I do believe that with great work between all medical locations such as private offices and hospitals both can come up with an application that could manage both programs. This would allow a doctor to access patient's information from the hospital
One of the most common ways to parametrize a circuit is by using the equivalent model of the transistor to the small signal analysis (used for low frequencies), or the S-parameters analysis, especially for RF circuits. However, these tests are only accurate enough for sizing linear devices, which is not the case of power amplifiers. Thus, it is necessary to resort to the analysis of large signals. For large signals, both the output and input impedances have to consider the values of frequency, DC voltage, output power, temperature, input power and
The 10’s and 3’s rule are supposed to assist the network manager find the quantity of energy that is either received or lost in a wireless transmission. Different resources of RF interference may cause various stages of loss and gain. Therefore it is essential for one to understand the dB measurement to assist
In process of placing the window, you bend out the window unit's nailing fins so as to abrupt to the edges of the window frame. Then set the window's sill into the bottom of the coarse space, and angle the frame into the opening until all the nailing fins are tight alongside the wall. Then have an assistant stand inside and to tell you when the space between the sides of the window and the jack nails are equal on both sides. Pin the nailing fin to the casing at one upper corner with a 1 ½-inch roofing nail, but don’t drive it all the way in so as avoid it cracking
at octave frequencies between 250 Hz and 4 kHz) was carried out and an average pure-tone
The Loudness button on consumer stereo receivers is an equalization circuit that boosts the highs and lows as the volume is lowered so the music will sound the same whether soft or loud. Noise-shaping circuits filter dither and quantization noise into the extreme upper range, where we will simply notice it less.
By Tribuvan Kumar Prakash Bachelor of Engineering in Electronics and Communication Engineering Visveswaraiah Technological University, Karnataka, 2004. August 2007