Hypothalamus

Once stimulated by the chemoreceptor trigger zone, the integrative vomiting centre coordinates the activation of all the nearby neural structures required to produce the multifaceted patterned response that will then lead to the processing and action of vomiting. The integrative vomiting centre coordinates the various inputs to the motor component of the emetic reflex, consisting of both somatic and autonomic systems, as the reflex involves both voluntary and involuntary processes. The abdominal and respiratory musculature, and visceral components involved in mediating changes in gastric motility and gastric tone are controlled by somatic pathways, while the autonomic pathways control sweating, salivation and pallidity of the skin. The activation of autonomic pathways plays a role in the intensity and duration of the nausea that accompanies emesis, as opposed to the actual action of vomiting (myVMC,

Scientifically, it has been proven that one should not make long-term decisions while hungry. Students at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden studied whether or not it is smart to make a decision when you are ravenous. A hormone that is made in the gastrointestinal tract, called ghrelin enhanced this study. Ghrelin is released when your body is searching for food as energy. When you are no longer hungry, the manufacturing of ghrelin halts. Ghrelin is also associated with drug and alcohol intake. Tests were developed to demonstrate how this happens through living organisms, the researchers at the University of Gothenburg examined rats. Although rats are not humans, they can display human-like behaviors. When an extra amount of ghrelin was inserted into the rat, they went against their regular impulses. They would gain a

) Due to hypothalamus stimulation, Laila will feel hungry. Two regions of hypothalamus will contribute towards the hunger of Laila, which are the lateral and paraventricular hypothalamus. These regions have been correlated with receptors for certain chemical messengers that signal hunger, especially ghrelin and leptin. Lateral Hypothalamus is the region of the brain associated with hunger recognition. Laila’s body will recognize hunger due to the stimulation of lateral hypothalamus (lateral nuclei). Laila’s paraventricular hypothalamus will regulate her hunger. The stomach and the hypothalamus produce the hormone ghrelin. Laila’s levels of ghrelin will increase which will signal the body of hunger due to the receptors of hypothalamus. Laila knows that it is time to eat because she can feel her stomach growling through her interceptors. After the smell of the pizza was sent to the hypothalamus,

Leptin and ghrelin are internal intermediary that affect feeding and appetite. Ghrelin is secreted by the stomach adjust short-term appetitive control (i.e. to eat when the stomach is empty and to stop when the stomach is filled). Leptin is secreted by white adipose tissue to signal fat storage reserves in the body and mediates long-term appetitive controls (i.e. to eat less when fat storages are high and more when fat storages are low). It plays an efficient role in the regulation of energy balance and body weight by decreaing food intake and stimulating energy expenditure.39 Although, administration of leptin may be effective in a small subset of obese individuals who are leptin deficient. Most obese individuals are thought to be leptin resistant

Ghrelin, commonly referred to as the “hunger hormone,” is a 28-amino acid peptide that has many important roles in human digestion including regulation of growth hormone release, enhancement of appetite, and increase of food intake (1). This gut-derived peptide could play an extremely important role in the altered eating behaviors of patients with eating disorders. Increased fasting plasma ghrelin levels have been consistently reported in underweight patients with anorexia nervosa. Circulating levels of this hormone have also been found to be enhanced in symptomatic bulimic patients, while also being blunted in response to balanced meals (4).

The hypothalamus is thought to have quite a lot of control over our eating behaviour, the lateral hypothalamus (LH) is considered to be the feeding switch that makes an individual begin to feed whereas the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is the satiety switch that makes an

Objective: To study the differences in CNS activation due to food cues and consumption between

One hypothesis suggests that bulimia nervosa is the behavioral manifestation of the underactivity of serotonin. Serotonin is one of the hormones/neurotransmitters that regulates vital functions, such as eating, in the central nervous system. It is also thought to be responsible for controlling states of consciousness and mood. Serotonin is special: its own synthesis and release is enhanced by some foods, suppressed by others, and unaffected by yet others. The effects are all dependent on nutritional content. Transmitters are also affected by not eating. The brain easily detects how long an individual has gone without food. These qualities enable serotonin-releasing neurons to control one type of appetite: that for eating the appropriate amounts of carbohydrates and proteins. However, these same neurons can cause food consumption to affect other behaviors linked with serotonin such as sleepiness and environmental stimuli. They may also allow mood disturbances to override appetite control mechanisms, causing an individual to eat unnecessarily (Winik 27-34).

Ghrelin is the first hormone to be identified that increases feeding when administered peripherally. All of the other known orexigenic peptide transmitters such as neuropeptide Y, orexin, agoutirelated peptide (AGRP), melanocortin-concentrating hormone, and galanin stimulate feeding only when administered into the brain. The observations that circulating ghrelin levels surge suddenly before a meal and fall sharply after a meal, suggest that ghrelin serves as a signal for initiation of feeding. Interestingly, ghrelin increases the number but not the size of meals. However, ghrelin does not only play a role in regulating short-term feeding, but it also regulates body weight over the long-term (Cummings et al.,

This system is comprised of Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and AgRP neurons of the arcuate hypothalamus (Arc), neuropeptides α-MSH and AgRP, and central melanocortin receptors (MCRs) MC3R and MC4R. POMC and AgRP neurons monitor energy state and change their activity to alter feeding and body weight. When energy needs are met, POMC neurons release α-MSH which acts as an agonist on MC3R and MC4R. AgRP is released in response to an energy deficit and acts as an inverse agonist/antagonist of the central MCRs. Activation of POMC and AgRP neuron signaling has an opposite effect on feeding behavior such that the stimulation of POMC neurons or injection of MCR agonist decreases food intake and body weight27-29 , whereas AgRP neuron activation, central administration or overexpression of AgRP stimulates food intake and weight gain27,30-33. In addition to neuropeptide-mediated signaling, both POMC and AgRP neurons are also capable of fast neurotransmission via Glutamate and/or GABA34-36 and this neurotransmission has been suggested to play an important role in the ability of POMC and AgRP neurons to control feeding27,32. Although much is known about the role of AgRP and POMC neurons in the regulation of feeding and body weight, there is still much to be learned about the larger role these neurons play in energy homeostasis, including their interactions with non-homeostatic circuits, and a better understanding of the role GABA and Glutamate released from POMC and AgRP neurons play in feeding

Undereating or overeating can activate brain chemicals that produce feelings of peace and euphoria which temporarily dispels anxiety and depression (?ANRED?). In some individuals with eating disorders certain chemicals in the brain that control hunger, appetite, and digestion have been found to be imbalance, but the exact meaning of these imbalances is still under investigation (?NEDA?).

The second system that plays a large role in panic attacks is the hypothalamus. Along with the amygdala, the hypothalamus plays a key part in the autonomic function of the nervous system. It works to regulate homeostasis within the body as well as monitor behaviors such as drinking and eating. In the case of patients with social anxiety disorder, the hypothalamus constantly sends chemical signals to the sympathetic nervous system that can implement fight or flight response, which is often exemplified through states of panic and anxiety (Wilent, 2009). Again, with the help of the amygdala, these signals are activated through chemical receptors. Irregular stimulation of chemical receptors in the

In summary, Professionals should consider families as an important element of providing care for their child and focus should be on family support, early diagnosis, finance, training and collaboration to devise appropriate services for children with autism. It is also imperative to support and address sibling’s emotional needs. Because, siblings who grew in a better socioeconomic environment have better chance of progressing well in life compared to children who are born in poverty. It is because opportunities are less for people with disadvantaged background. Children with autism are dependant on their parents to care for them. It is imperative for parents to manage their own worries, depression and anxieties about their autistic child.

According to 2009-2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, more than two thirds of US adults are overweight or obese1 generating an estimated health care cost of $150 billion2. Increasing obesity prevalence may be attributed to a decrease in energy expenditure and an increase in intake of foods rich in sugar and fat, increase in snacking prevalence and energy density of snacks consumed3. Feeding is a complex behavior involving the integration of physiological energy needs and the pleasure derived from food consumption. Hypothalamic centers regulate energy-need based feeding, whereas the consumption of palatable foods, such as foods rich in fat and sugar, is regulated by the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system. The two

Compulsive eating and other related eating disorders have a lot in common with drug addiction: both are based on reward processes, include compulsive elements (binge eating vs. binge drug intake), can be described as chronic diseases with high risk of relapse and both share a marked lack of sensitivity to behavioural and pharmacological therapies (for review see Wilson 1993). Among the different models existing for assessing eating disorders (West and York 1998, Tschöp and Heiman 2001, Corwin and Buda-Levin 2004), there is currently no single "gold standard" model or test battery for compulsive behaviour. Models evaluating the compulsive component of eating disorders in rodent by distinguishing between reward-related, energy-related and compulsion-related factors in eating control, may represent a valuable tool in the preclinical search for new pharmaco-therapeutic