Macromolecules Essay

Biological evolution begins with the origin of life, but the subject is the perhaps the most interdisciplinary of any in science. Understanding how life began on Earth requires knowledge of the astronomical, geological, and atmospheric settings. However, those settings are in turn dependent on knowing the time period when life arose, which comes from the fossil and molecular records, including molecular clocks based on genetic mutations. Interrelated with the setting is the chemistry that generates the organic molecules used to assemble the first cells and carry the genetic information to successive generations of cells. But holding the chemical reactions and products together in a cell requires a membrane, and the assembly of that involves

The most common macromolecules found in living organisms are lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids. Briefly, the meaning of macromolecules is that they normally contain two or more molecules in them and their main functions are to store energy, information and much more. Most foods are known to be combinations of macromolecules. While some of these compounds can be detected by taste tests, many cannot. Scientists then use certain tests to determine the presence of macromolecules.

Dehydration-synthesis is a reaction that occurs to form different types of macromolecules. It is a reaction that leaves a macromolecule structure along the lines of developing its own specific function in a living organism. The 4 most common ones are carbohydrates which includes monosaccharides and polysaccharides, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids (Mack 2012). Scientists identify different types of macromolecules to achieve a better understanding on how they function in our bodies. This can be achieved by studying their chemical properties and structure.

Proteins are the metabolic workhorses of the cell; they engage in a variety of essential activities ranging from enzymatically catabolizing macromolecular food sources to serving as structural components that maintain cell stability. Maximizing protein function relies on intricate non-covalent interactions occurring on the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels that help determine the overall shape of the protein. In their native states, proteins will assume the most energetically favorable configuration. Occasionally however, cells are exposed to exogenous disruptions such as heat stress. Heat Stress can compromise protein three-dimensional structure. Hydrophobic residues tend to be buried in the interior of the protein but when

A cell is the fundamental building blocks of all living organisms. Cell’s consist of four biopolymers; protein, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. Each macromolecule is a polymer that is formed from molecules known as monomers. In this experiment samples will be subjected through a variety of chemical tests using procedures that will detect the presence of each macromolecule; carbohydrates, protein, and lipids. The specific chemical tests that will be used during this experiment consist of the Biuret test which is a test used to determine the presence of peptide bonds in protein, which is the chemical bond that holds amino acids together. The test relies on a color change to confirm the presence of proteins. If proteins are present,

Proteins are primarily considered to have one primary function to serve its role in an organism, however studies have observed to have multiple functioning proteins known as moonlighting proteins (Khan et al. 2014). Moonlighting proteins along with primary functions, have secondary functions that are not related to the primary function and does not correlate to the primary or other functions (Khan et al. 2014). The multifunctional proteins play essential roles in carrying out biochemical functions which aids in the cell growth but are not caused by gene fusion and multiple RNA splice variants (Amblee et al. 2015). The discovery of moonlighting proteins was first discovered by Piatigorsky and Wistow while observing crystallins (Khan et al. 2014). Crystallins, are structural proteins that are found in the eye lens that exhibit enzymatic activity to make the lens itself (Khan et al. 2014). Crystallin has a primary function to help form the lens of the eye by acting as a structural protein (Amblee et al. 2015). Besides enzymatic activity, crystallin was observed in other mammals to have secondary functions such as metabolic functions which are helpful in prokaryotic (Khan et al 2014). Most moonlighting proteins are characterized as cytosolic enzymes and chaperons, or in other words helping proteins (Amblee et al 2015). The multifunctional proteins or moonlighting proteins can also be identified as receptors, channel proteins and ribosomal proteins (Khan et al. 2014). Due to the

Vaccine subtypes that are commonly used today include toxoids as well as subunits and conjugates. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases discusses these last types. For bacteria that secrete toxins or harmful chemicals, a toxoid vaccine is used. These vaccinations are used only when the illness is caused by a toxin produced by the bacteria, rather than the bacteria itself. Formalin is used to inactivate these toxins and then once the vaccination is given, the body’s immune system produces antibodies that block the toxin and prevent further infection (NIAID, 2012). Unfortunately, this protection is only temporary as toxoids have the same disadvantages as inactivated vaccines and hence require booster shots to provide long-lasting protection (NIAID, 2012). Furthermore, sometimes vaccinations can be made using only part of the pathogen. These vaccinations are known as subunit vaccines and their subsidiary, conjugates. Subunit vaccines include only the bacteria’s antigen or epitope – the specific part of the antigen which the immune system’s antibodies or T-cells recognize and bind to (NIAID, 2012). However, conjugate vaccines do not use antigens but rather, if the bacterium possesses it, an outer coating of sugar molecules (polysaccharides) which aid in disguising the bacteria’s antigen from immature immune systems (NIAID, 2012). A primary

These vaccine preparation are made by harvesting the allantoic fluid followed by chemically inactivation using_β-propiolactone or formalin, and subsequently it is concentrated and purified to remove non-viral protein contaminants (Wong S., Webby R. , 2013).The use of whole virus vaccines was reduced because of higher incidence of side effects when compared with the other formulations. In present time it has regained interest in the context of pandemic vaccine development as a simple and highly immunogenic vaccine formulation ( Geeraedts etal,2008)

There are four main macromolecules also known as polymers. The four macromolecules are protein, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. "The first three are the three macromolecules that are consumed. "-1 In this lab we use two carbohydrates, protein and water.

There are four major classes of macromolecules. They are lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. There are many similarities between these macromolecules, and they all play a very important role in biology. However, there are also many differences, especially between lipids and the other three groups.

Diamonds are essentially made out of carbon atoms. They are solids that can go through the process of high temperature and high pressure. (Pilgrim, 2011) It is known to man that diamonds are the hardest material on the earth. (Sean, 2008) With a melting point of 3550 ℃and a boiling point of 4827 C. As you can see above that diamonds have an extremely high melting point (m.p) and a high boiling point (b.p.) The pressure to produce diamonds are also in extreme conditions, diamonds are produced with a temperature range of 900 and 1300 degrees Celsius. Then put under pressure of 725,000 pounds per square inch. (World of Carbon, n.d.) Diamonds have these properties

Vaccines are sensitive biological products. Some vaccines are sensitive to freezing, some to heat and others to light. Vaccine potency, meaning its ability to adequately protect the vaccinated patient, can diminish when the vaccine is exposed to inappropriate temperatures. Once lost, vaccine potency cannot be regained. To maintain quality, vaccines must be protected from temperature extremes. Vaccine quality is maintained using a cold chain that meets specific temperature requirements. Figure 2 shows recommended vaccine storage temperatures at each level of the cold chain. Therefore, it is essential that all those who handle vaccines and diluents know the temperature sensitivities and the recommended storage temperatures for all the vaccines

Forget the “diluted” virus in the vaccine, because that is not the only thing that is in the vaccine. There are so many chemicals and ingredients

Proteins are macromolecular polymers, built up of chains of repeating units called amino acids. There are twenty different naturally occurring amino acids, all of which have the vital amino (-NH₂) and carboxylic acid (-COOH) groups bonded to the central carbon atom, as well as an “R” group specific to that amino acid. Proteins are versatile and useful molecules, they can be used in many different roles in the body. For example, the catalysis of biological reactions, the transmission of messages around the body and the transportation of molecules (eg. the transportation of oxygen by haemoglobin). Proteins are coded for by the sequence of nucleotide bases in the DNA sequence of genes specific to the protein molecule in question. This sequence of bases is copied in the process of transcription which takes place in the nucleus of the cell. The copied sequence then undergoes post-transcriptional modification. This allows the introns (which are of no use in translation) to be removed from the sequence and the exons to be organised into the correct sequence to code for a specific protein. This modified sequence is then used in the process of translation to code for the amino acid sequence of the protein. Translation takes place in the ribosomes of the cell and is the process which results in the final formation of the linear polypeptide chain of the protein. This polypeptide chain is the basic primary structure of the protein. Proteins have four basic levels of

On the other hand, the lipid bilayer contains many proteins that will only operate if they are free floating on this bilayer. It is only possible for these proteins to float is the lipid bilayer is liquid, and at low temperatures the bilayer may change phase and freeze. These effects can reduce essential cellular functions, which can reduce energy availability. Maintaining a stable body temperature is crucial in environments such as the Coast to Coast, as energy demands are high in order to survive the physical exhaustion