Managing and Protecting the Mangrove Forestry in the Philippines

Mangroves are woody trees and shrubs with a thick, exposed network of roots that grow down from the branches and into the water and sediment. All mangroves are found on the intertidal zones between ocean and the land. When the sediment accumulate little wave occurs, the saline depend on the frequency. Some of the indirect impacts are the sediment runoff and also including chemical runoff, global warming is one of main effects of the mangrove ecosystem. In Tannum there are various types of mangroves. Such as the river and grey mangroves located at south tree and wild cattle in both Tannum sands and Boyne Island along the Boyne River. Leaves are around 7cm long gland that secret salt, the

Mangrove Forest is another type of ecosystem in South Texas. Mangrove Forests are found along the coast in salty waters and the general abiotic conditions are high salinity flooded soils, low wave energy, high temperatures, and muddy soils. Black Mangrove and Buttonwood are the dominant plant species in South Texas Mangrove Forest ecosystem. Buttonwood is adapted to this ecosystem because it resides inland where there is less salty conditions. Black Mangrove is adapted to sandy salty clay soil and requires protection from wave action and they are sensitive to cold weather. Some common animal species that live in Mangrove Forests are many species of fish, crabs, mollusks, and birds. Mangrove forests provide a habitat, shelter, and nursery to these species that reside in this ecosystem. Mangrove forest serve as a coastal protection from severe storms and hurricanes also help remove pollutants and erosion. The economic importance of Mangrove forest is that they support fisheries, water purification, tourism, and coastal protection. Human activities pose a threat to Mangrove Forests because of the removal of some mangroves, boat waves, oil spills, dredging, draining, and diking.

Zonation is the distribution of animals and plants into specific zones according to abiotic factors and characterised by its dominant species [15]. Mangrove zonation is the distinguishable categorisation of a mangrove ecosystem that extends from shore to inland regions. Definitive spatial variation of mangrove species has been recognised amongst different ecosystems worldwide and is accredited as being influenced by abiotic and environmental factors [16]. In Eastern Australia, the majority of mangrove forests may be divided into landward, middle and seaward zones, based off of their placement in relation to tidal position. The following points represent the typical physiognomies characterised by mangroves in their corresponding zones:

Do you know what carbon sequestration is? If not, let me first tell you what does carbon sequestration means. Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and long term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Mangroves are one of the largest carbon storage areas. Although mangroves occupy only 0.5% of the global coastal area, they contribute 10-15% to coastal sediment carbon storage and also export 10-11% of the particulate terrestrial carbon to the ocean. Their contribution to carbon sequestration is now perceived as a means for conservation and restoration and a way to help in mitigate the climate change. As from year to year, the global warming keeps increasing in thus if the mangrove are absent, don’t you think that it will become worse than

In Belize, mangroves estimate up to 3.4% of the land area, about 296 square miles (CITE). Mangroves serve important ecological service such as erosion control, filter, and clean, while also providing shelter to many marine organisms like lemon sharks, invertebrates, shrimp, and manatees. There is a lot of biodiversity in mangroves and due to the clearance for urban and rural development, many of these organisms are losing their homes (Patterson). Belize’s coastal areas are usually sea grass beds. Sea grass destruction strip away habitats from numerous lobster, conch, fish, turtles, and manatees (CITE). Sea grass is the manatee’s main food source and destruction of these beds limits their grazing and range. Watercraft traffic in these shallow areas is also another reason of harming the sea grass beds.

This type of mangrove prefers to be further back from the sea and only have a few high tides in a year. As it is hard to get oxygen to the roots because the mud has almost no capacity to hold oxygen orange mangroves have developed knee roots. Knee roots grow above the surface and then down into the ground. The grey mangrove (Avicennia Marina) occurs in soft muds and sandy soils. They are a pioneer species and often grow along the sea line forming mud banks. Grey mangroves grow a snorkel or pencil root which pokes up out of the mud to get oxygen these roots are also very strong. The red mangrove (Rhizophora styles) prefers soft well drained muddy soils. It likes the water to only be shallow covering it. The red mangroves solved the solution of getting oxygen and stability by supporting itself out of the ground with stilt roots. The casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia incana) have adapted to grow in wet soils, dry climates and swampy areas. They attract a lot of native birds, the leaves on these trees are actually branchlettes and the leaves are very small on the edges of this branchlettes, the branchlettes fall under the tree forming a thick blanket stopping weeds from growing. The roots of the casuarina take the nitrogen from the air and puts it in the

The Burnett River, which was such an important part in the habitation of the district,was named after J.C Burnett who explored the region in 1847. What J.C. Burnett probably didn’t realise back then was that the river was 435 km long and opens out into the Coral Sea. Factories are being built on the banks of this beautiful river and are not contributing to its safety or to its health. Mangroves are being cleared for development even though they are important for the river’s survival. There are 80 types of mangroves and in total 39 species can be located in Queensland which means almost half of the species in the world can be found in the one state. It takes mangroves 10-15 years to reach full maturity ,but it doesn’t take too long to kill them.The mangroves help Bundaberg and the other regions on its banks.

Rainforests have been declining rapidly over the last few decades. There are various factors responsible for this decline, resulting in serious impacts on the environment and the economy. Critically discuss the causes of deforestation and solutions to it.

As a result of this, more sediment is released into rivers that flow out into the ocean and coral reefs. Mangrove Forests are found between 32 degrees north and 38 degrees south latitude (www.earthisland.org ). They protect the coastlines from erosion, storm damage, and wave action. They also serve as sediment traps from inland sources, and help protect coral reefs from over sedimentation. As land clearing and intensive farming increase these important ecosystems become scarce (Wolanski and Spagnol 1999). Clearing the land causes an increase in soil erosion, creating mud that flows out to coral reefs. Nowlis et. al. (1997), found more sediment and coral damage on reefs closest to large river mouths. Sedimentation ultimately smothers coral reefs by reducing sunlight needed for photosynthesis (Birkeland ). Normally corals can sustain low levels of sediment supply by using natural removal processes. Over time they are unable to remove the sediment if there is too much sediment in the water (Grigg and Dollar 1990). In worst case scenarios sediments can bury corals completely. This was the case about 35 years ago in Castle Harbor, Bermuda. After dredging practices took place, corals that were found with in confined water circulation had a catastrophic mortality rate (Brown 1997).

In this paper, a bioeconomic model used by Barbier in two separate papers to explain the relationship between shrimp farming and destruction of mangroves in Thailand’s coastal zone waters (Barbier, 2003) and the Laguna de Terminos in Mexico (Barbier and Strand, 1998) will be used to examine the detrimental effects of clam farming on the Venetian Lagoon ecosystem. Barbier (2003) uses an intertemporal model of an open-access fishery to illustrate the changes in mangrove area (or in this case, area of healthy seafloor) on the carrying capacity of the stock and therefore on production, examining the relationship between the stock (S) and number of fishermen (L). This model operates under several assumptions. The first is that in order to incorporate a habitat-fishery linkage in a bioeconomic fishery model, it must be assumed that the habitat’s role in supporting the growth and maturation of species as a breeding ground and nursery has an effect on the carrying capacity and biological growth of the stock of the fish (Barbier, 2003). Using . Using M_(t ) to denote the area of healthy seafloor, any change in the stock can be illustrated as:

Meanwhile, there is still substantial scientific uncertainty in most aspects of the global carbon cycle with respect to deforestation. In addition to acting as stores, sinks, and potential sources of carbon, tropical forests also are a green blanket over large equatorial areas, the region of the world where incoming solar radiation is most intense. Tropical forest provide a historically stable land surface for key processes, such as the strength of large-scale circulation cells, regional rainfall patterns, and energy balances, are even less understood than carbon dynamics. Safeguarding tropical forests, when and where appropriate, will help maintain hydrologic and other conditions that human take for granted. As FAO argues, forests are ‘doubly’ important to fighting global warming with 25% of all emissions reductions could be achieved by conserving and restoring tropical forests by 2050.

Conserving marine environment is important in order to keep the waters and marine organisms healthy and safe. Studies state that “fragile reefs are home to an astounding 25% of all marine species” and that “too many fish are being fished out. (conservationinternational.com)” Other studies state that “the value society places on marine ecosystems is disproportionately small. Other studies state that “the value society places on marine ecosystems is disproportionately smaller than what is deserved” and that humanity should replenish our natural resources by adapting to protect them. (www.rappler)” The marine environment within the Philippines can be conserved by passing laws and joining conservation clubs and humans are greatly affected by the marine environment because of the Philippines being an island in the Pacific Ocean, so they are always surrounded by marine life.

This biome has been reduced to 7% of its original extent and the remaining forests are highly fragmented (Washington).More than 35% of the world’s mangroves are already gone. The figure is as high as

Seagrasses are essential primary producers that provide habitat and refuge to fauna. Anthropogenic influences have caused global loss of seagrasses and a major contributor is eutrophication, which increases phytoplankton and algal populations, reduces light availability, and causes daily hypoxic conditions. Eutrophication is commonly linked to declines in temperate conditions and is more difficult to link to tropical systems since decreases are typically related to physical damage and diminishing light conditions from runoff. Climate change, herbivore declines, disease and overfishing, along with anthropogenic impacts from coastal development, run-off, eutrophication, and aquaculture have caused declines in coral reefs and mangrove systems. These three systems are interconnected and when one system is impacted, secondary impacts are observed in the other systems; coastal ecosystems will be adversely effected and decline. Additional research, conservation, and ways to reduce anthropogenic impacts have been discussed. Restoration is used to reverse habitat loss, although success is varied. Coastal systems and the biological and ecosystem services they provide, may take decades to establish. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are instituted to protect systems from further degradation, restore communities and allow them to flourish naturally. However, local residents are affected by MPAs and may become displaced, have restriction placed on their livelihood, or elimination of their

According to Upadhyay et al., (2002), mangrove ecosystems have many ecological importances for maintaining marine life. Mangrove ecosystems are being studied with more interest worldwide because of their economic importance in support of commercial fisheries alone (Cintron et al. 1980). Uses and values of mangroves are many and varied. For example, they provide habitat as well as spawning and nursery ground for various marine species like fish, shellfish, crustaceans and other marine organisms, enrich the near-shore environment, act as windbreakers and protects the shoreline from storms, stabilize the shoreline, and