Neurochemistry is the Study of Neurochemicals and Neurotransmitters that Influence the Function of Neurons

we have a hormone known as trypton that is a derivative of serotonin. When it

Some psychiatrists believe that tampering with a child or teens serotonin levels through the use of antidepressants could be detrimental to the child’s well-being and development. Markedly, typical development of natural reactions to occurrences inciting nervousness and unease are thwarted by these drugs. Interestingly, brain development has been found to continue into the mid 20’s and perhaps longer, which

Major depressive disorder is one of the most common mental disorders, with a 12-month prevalence of 6.7% of adults in the United States (NIMH). There is no definite etiology of depression, but several risk factors have been identified. Functional and structural changes in the brain have also been explored. The most common treatment for depression is the use of drugs that act on monoamine transmitters, including norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. Decreases in these transmitters, especially serotonin, were hypothesized to play an important role in the cause of depression (Breedlove & Watson, 2013). The serotonin hypothesis led to the development of selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which increase the amount of serotonin in the brain. Further research suggests that the serotonin hypothesis is not entirely accurate and the neurobiology of depression is much more complex. The “chemical imbalance” explanation of depression may not reflect the full range of causes and may be given greater credibility by patients and doctors than is supported by evidence based research.

The effect of Acetylcholine had on the frog’s heart. The heart flatlined, and the spikes seen after the rinsing of the chest cavity in hopes that the heart will beat again.

The brain chemical serotonin is connected to many body functions such as sleep, wakefulness, eating, sexual activity, impulsivity, learning, and memory. Researchers believe that abnormal

Nothing disturbs me more than when someone tries to describe something as complicated as a mental state with something as simplistic as serotonin levels.

Serotonin was the first neurotransmitter used. A stock solution of 1mM serotonin was obtained from the refrigerator and with blue tip micropipette, 1ml of solution was transferred to the container. The container with the crayfish was covered for five minutes to allow the neurotransmitter to equilibrate between the holding water and the animal’s hemolymph. The trace was started and the heart rate was recorded for five to ten minutes. Afterward the trace was stopped and the start and end of the serotonin heart rate trace was annotated. With the serotonin experiment finished, the holding water was replaced with 100ml of freshwater crustacean

Serotonin is found in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the central nervous system (CNS). Serotonin in the CNS affects learning, appetite, mood, and sleep. In the GI, it is used to control appetite and digestion. A few feelings come as a result of serotonin, such as happiness, relaxation, and security. Low serotonin levels can cause depression, anxiety, and

Genetic predisposition is an important part of the formation of mental illnesses. Mental illnesses and depression often onset early in life due to the amount of stress and genetic predisposition. Specifically, the SERT gene regulates serotonin in the body (Parks 30). Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that affects mood, behavior, and memory. A neurotransmitter helps to relay messages to other areas of the body through neurons, nerve cells, that are placed throughout the body. A neurotransmitter either inhibits or excites messages through the body, such as pain or other feelings. The brain produces serotonin, which is then spread throughout the body via the blood vessels. According to David Myers, the formula for depression is a traumatic or important life stressor plus a "variation on a serotonin-controlling gene" (Myers 10). When serotonin production is imbalanced, sleep problems and irritability have a high chance of occurring, which are linked to the onset of depression. Low serotonin levels trigger depression after a traumatic event occurs (Parks 30). When the SERT gene is mutated, the risk for depression increases. Variations in neurotransmitters and the genes that produce them, especially serotonin and the SERT gene, lead to the development of depression when serotonin production is imbalanced or

Though data from vagal stimulation was disregarded, it is still important to mention the responses that should have been elicited had the vagus nerve been stimulated properly. The vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) is a part of the parasympathetic nervous system and reduce heart rate when given enough electrical stimulation. Vagal escape occurs when the vagus nerve has been stimulated to the point of the nerve ceasing to repolarize, and then resuming sending action potential for heartbeat. The result is a cease or slowing of heart rate temporarily, and then heart rate starting up again. When atropine is applied to the heart along with vagal stimulation, the atropine blocks any response the vagus nerve should send (Sarnoff et al,

In addition to allowing us to feel good, serotonin also affects growth of synapses in the brain, aiding in deciding the proper response to situations, during brain developmental years. Use of SSRIs at this time could permanently alter connections in the brain, damaging a person’s ability to react in appropriate ways. It was previously thought that the brain ceased development at the age of 12, but recent studies show that the brain continues its development well into one’s mid-20’s, and perhaps even beyond. This new information concerned

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is a neurotransmitter in the brain that has an enormous influence over many brain functions. It is synthesized, from the amino acid L-tryptophan, in brain neurons and stored in vesicles. Serotonin is found in three main areas of the body: the intestinal wall; large constricted blood vessels; and the central nervous system. The most widely studied effects have been those on the central nervous system. The functions of serotonin are numerous and appear to involve control of appetite, sleep, memory and learning, temperature regulation, mood, behavior (including sexual and hallucinogenic behavior), cardiovascular function, muscle contraction, endocrine regulation, and

An individual’s behavior and emotion becomes chemically altered often resulting in dependency, aggression, onset of diseases and poor judgement. This poses a dangerous threat to the neurotransmitters since they have multiple jobs in different parts of the brain. Drugs of abuse are able to exert influence over the brain reward pathway either by directly influencing the action of dopamine within the system, or by altering the activity of other neurotransmitters that exert a modulatory influence over this pathway. These drugs are often powerful and have been known to trigger schizophrenic behavior and can also cause a person to cease breathing, for example hallucinogens such as LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin are able to artificially stimulate the serotonin receptor (Sapolsky, 2005).

The field of neurooncology is a rapidly evolving area of neuroscience. New tumors and variants of old are frequently being found. One of the more recent additions to the World Health Organization list of brain tumors is the pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma. There are rare tumors that tend to occur in adolescence. Due to its infancy the literature is still being accumulated concerning the best management of these patients. We present a case of a young female with a recurrent Pleomorphic Xanthoastrocytoma (PXA).

The neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin is also thought to play a role in depression (Porth 1371).  There are decreased levels of these neurotransmitters present in the pre and post synaptic cleft.  Dopamine levels have been studied and increased levels of dopamine are found in mania and decreased levels in depression (Porth 1372).