2. One type of behavioral paradigms used for rats that can be related to humans is the Pavlovian conditioning. Pavlovian conditioning paradigm is when the experimenter pairs a conditional stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a response. The response is typically unconditional until there are enough pairings to have the conditioned stimulus to cause a conditioned response. The unconditioned response and condition response are usually similar. The way these could be generalized is with drug use in a specific environment. The environment with the drug use is the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus. The physiological response would be the unconditioned response. The environment would cause the person to want the drug again in …show more content…
This behavioral paradigm involves reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease the voluntary response of the rat. The self-stimulation paradigm is an example of this in which rats would pull a lever to get an electrical stimulation to the reward center. This can be generalized to humans because we behave in the same manner. If we have reinforcement to do something good, we will continue to do it to seek the reward. If we are punished, we sometimes stop the activity. The severity of the punishment depends on the extinction the activity. The technique could be watching toddlers getting gold star when they do something …show more content…
Additionally, these could be used to look at the positive incentive theory of drug addiction. The person is seeking that reinforcement of euphoria from the drug. The fMRI could be used to monitor the brains activity before, during, and after use to determine what areas of the brain are active. Lesson 6 1. Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease both involve the degeneration of the neural tissue and function of the brain. Both of these are types of neurodegenerative diseases which are neuropsychological diseases. A lot of the neuropathology of Parkinson’s is known. For example, particular neural cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta start to progressively degenerate or breakdown. The substantia nigra pars compacta is found in the midbrain. The neurons use the neurotransmitter dopamine. The neural pathway go to the caudate nucleus and putamen of the basal ganglia which is also known as the striatum. The receptors can have an excitatory or inhibitory effect depending on dopamine release by the substantia nigra. Typically, the dopamine has excitatory effects in the motor cortex which results in movement of the body. In people with Parkinson’s disease, the dopamine releasing neurons in the substantia nigra are degenerated. The
The ponderance that Brain = Behavior and the inherent ramifications of such proves no more fascinating than when addressed in the context of "Addiction and the Brain". Essential to consider is:
Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning which occurs when two stimuli are paired together repetitively and therefore become associated with each other eventually producing the same response. Classical conditioning was developed from the findings of Ivan Pavlov to account for associations between neutral stimuli and reflexive behavior such as salivation. Pavlov (1927) accidently discovered that dogs began to salivate before they had tasted their food. To support his theory, he carried out experiments using dogs which involved measuring the amount of saliva they produced. In his experiments, food started off as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which produced salivation, an unconditioned response (UCR). They are both unconditioned as they occur naturally without being learned. The dogs were presented with a bell (NS), this provided no salivation. The bell and food were presented together and after many trails an
Parkinson’s disease is a “neurodegenerative disorder of the basal nuclei due to insufficient secretion of the neurotransmitter dopamine” (Marieb & Hoehn, 2013, p. G-17). The cause of Parkinson’s disease is unknown, but many factors play a role in the development of Parkinson’s disease. One factor that has been found in an individual who has Parkinson’s disease causes over activity of targeted dopamine-deprived basal nuclei. This over activity is caused by the breakdown of neurons that release dopamine in the substantia nigra (Marieb & Hoehn, 2013). Another factor that is present in a person who has Parkinson’s disease, is the presence of lewy bodies in the brain stem ("What is lbd?," 2014). Lewy bodies are unusual
In operant conditioning, people learn to perform new behaviour through the consequences of their action. A consequence can be reinforced in two
Information from the nigra cells passes through the synapses with the aid of a specific hormone, dopamine, which is a significant chemical transmitter in the brain. Because the existence of dopamine is essential to the function of the substania nigra, it is also essential for the various muscular activities controlled by the striatum, such as walking, balance, etc. (16).
Parkinson’s disease is caused by the destruction of dopamine-producing nerve cells in the midbrain (Substantia nigra). These nerve cells are used to coordinate smooth and regular body movement. In the absence of these cells, people often experience tremors (involuntary shaking or
Parkinson’s disease “is described as a common disorder of the brain caused by a progressive deterioration of the areas that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine” (Fischer, 1999). It affects the nervous system, more specifically it affects the nerve cells in your brain that secrete dopamine. Dopamine is a chemical that is responsible for the movement and coordination of the musculoskeletal system.
PD is the second most common neurodegenerative disease featured pathologically by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The typical symptoms of PD include slowness of movements (bradykinesia), muscle stiffness (rigidity), tremor, and balance disturbance. Etiopathologically, PD is considered to be caused by the significant loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the subsequent dopamine depletion at the striatum. To date, there are only symptomatic treatments available for PD, particularly in the early stages of the disease. No therapy has been found that can cure or halt the progression of the disease.
Parkinson's Disease is a literally crippling neurodegenerative disorder, manifested in about 1% of the aged population. People who have Parkinson's Disease gradually lose control of their movements; specific symptoms include, "tremor, slowness of movement, stiffness, difficulty in walking, and loss of balance." (1) Evidence strongly suggests that Parkinson's Disease is the result of severe cell loss in the substantia nigra. This brain structure is principally involved in the production of dopamine. (2) Dopamine, among other functions, is the neurotransmitter involved in initiation of movement. Hence, the link between dopaminergic cell loss and cessation of voluntary movement, as manifested
Parkinson’s is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, primarily affecting voluntary, precise, and controlled movement. Parkinson’s occurs when cells in a part of the brain called the substantia nigra die off. These cells are responsible for producing dopamine. With less and less dopamine, a person has less and less ability to regulate their movements, body and emotions. The terms "familial Parkinson's disease" and "sporadic Parkinson's disease" are used to differentiate genetic from truly idiopathic forms of the disease.
Parkinson’s disease affects the brain of the individual. The disease affects the neurons in the brain that are responsible for producing dopamine. “In short, a person 's brain slowly stops producing a neurotransmitter called dopamine. With less and less dopamine, a person has less and less ability to regulate their movements, body and emotions” (“Understanding”). This leads to the symptoms frequently associated with Parkinson’s. While Parkinson’s disease is experienced differently in each case, there is a generic order in which the disease develops. There are five main stages that can be experienced. Not every patient will reach all stages, and the severity and rapidity varies. As the stages develop, the symptoms increase from mild and manageable, to intense.
Parkinson’s Disease usually begins around age 60, but it can start earlier. It is more common in men than in women. A variety of medicines sometimes help symptoms dramatically. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, which means it delivers a message in the central nervous system. Neurotransmitters are endogenous substances that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another “target” neuron or to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure. There are 5 different dopamine receptors (D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5) that provide for all of the physiological functions of dopamine. An imbalance of dopamine, either by deficiency or in excess, can promote several disorders. Dopamine has a key function in controlling our movements; dopamine is part of the basal
Siegel, Hinson, Krank and McCully (1982) did a study to determine if environmental cues was a factor in heroin overdose in rats. They argued that conditioning may occur between environmental cues surrounding an organism and the time of drug administration, which in turn affects tolerance and overdose. In this study, they believed that the effect of heroin would be the unconditioned and the conditioned stimulus is the environmental cues associated with using heroin (was once the neutral stimulus before being paired with the effects of heroin). If a drug is administered frequently with the same environmental cues, an association is made between the NS and the CS. Once this association is made, a conditioned response of anticipatory physiological
Parkinson’s disease is affected by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons which is responsible to produce dopamine. Dopaminergic neurons have their cell bodies in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) in basal ganglia (O’Sullivan and Schmitz, 2007). Basal ganglia are a collection of interconnected gray matter nuclear masses deep within the brain”. These gray matter masses are caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus and the substantia nigra. Basal ganglia receive its input through striatum (O’Sullivan and Schmitz, 2007).
It has been known that PD is a disorder affecting the basal ganglia. The term basal ganglia is generally applied to a collection of nuclei situated deep within the cerebral hemispheres, lying laterally to the thalamus (Gazzeniga, George, and Mangun, 2008). The basal ganglia are important subcortical structures. They are composed of five nuclei: caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, and substantia nigra. These nuclei are not thought of a single anatomical entity; rather, they form a functional unity whose contribution is greatly to motor control. Interestingly, this system does not influence movement through spinal cord pathways, but rather acts as part of a feedback loop to all areas of the cerebral cortex, with primary input into motor areas (Aird, 2000). A number of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are what control this whole process, and a balance of both is required to ensure that smooth, purposeful movement takes place. In order to understand the pathways of which the basal ganglia take part in, it is essential to know the input and output connections of the basal ganglia. The input