Ros Research Paper

Your body is in a constant battle against infection, diseases and the formation of free radicals. However, there's a secret weapon that can help you fight against these things: antioxidants! Antioxidants are elements such as vitamins A, C and E that counteract the damage caused by free radicals and help protect your healthy cells. Free radicals are the molecules that contain unpaired electrons, which make them highly reactive. In this form, they can cause damage by attacking healthy cells, and when these cells grow weakened, you become more vulnerable to disease.

The roles of antioxidants( Endogenous compounds) are to neutralize the excess of free radicals, to protect the cells against their toxic effects and to contribute in disease

Reduction of an electron from ring C in ANT causes to formation of free radical semiquinone. This radical is partly stable in anoxic environment but under normoxic condition, its unpaired electron is given to oxygen and superoxide radicals are formed. Appropriate flavoproteins such as complex I catalyses reduced semiquinone radicals by accepting electrons from NADH or NADPH and delivering them to ANT. This sequence of reactions are known as “redox cycling” that can be very deterious (dangerous) because low amount of ANT is adequate for formation of many superoxide radicals (67). This radical damage triggers production of highly toxic aldehydes such as malondialdehyde (MAD). These aldehydes can diffuse easily in the cell and even from cell membrane

Studies have shown that hydroxyl radical is responsible for oxidative DNA damage. Hydroxyl radicals come from the reaction between ascorbate (vitamin C), uranyl acetate, and hydrogen peroxide as illustrated in scheme 1 . The mechanism of DNA damage begins when the reaction between uranyl acetate and ascorbate (vitamin C) makes plasmid relaxation in pBluescript DNA. pBluescript DNA is a phagemid which includes many advantageous sequences for utilizing cloning with bacteriophage. The rate of DNA strand breaks multiply when the reaction between ascorbate (vitamin C), and uranyl acetate increase. In addition, hydrogen peroxide is the end product when there is a reaction between uranyl ion and ascorbate. DNA damage can happen

Oxidation factors such as smoking cigarettes or bacterial infection can split apart molecules held by weak bonds, resulting in an unstable molecule with unpaired electron known as free radical.35 These free radicals start attacking the healthy nearby cells and attempt to replace their missing electron. When an attacked molecule loses its electron, it becomes a free radical itself. The damaged cell can release free radicals and continue the effects of oxidative stress to surrounding cells. The resulting oxidative stress can damage the endothelial cell wall by lipid peroxidation. Reactive oxidative species attack the cell membrane composed of polyunsaturated fatty acids by initiating the self-propagating chain reaction. Destruction of the cell membrane causes the osmotic disequilibrium that imbalances the entry/exit pathway of water molecules, proteins, enzymes, and other nutrients inside the cell. This further leads to cross-linking of proteins which disrupts extracellular signaling molecules to recognize their target proteins and utilize them for fulfilling specific functions in the body. Lipid peroxidation

Free radicals are groups of atoms, molecules, or ions that possess an unpaired/unshared valence electron in their electron orbitals. Due to this, many radicals are very reactive because they want to reach a stable state. They can be classified as oxidants or reductants depending on whether they accept electrons from other atoms or donate atoms. Free radicals can be produced by natural processes such as metabolism. They are also generated from foods that we eat, water, medication, etc.

Normally, there is a balance between tissue oxidant and antioxidant activity. The latter is achieved by the antioxidant scavenger system, which includes enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and antioxidant vitamins (C, A, E and other carotenoids) (Gil et al., 2017) . Oxidative stress is a

Anti-oxidants are substances capable to mop up free radicals and prevent them from causing cell damage. Free radicals are responsible for causing a wide number of health problems which include cancer, aging, heart diseases, gastric problems etc. A free radical is an atom or molecule with a single unpaired electron. Examples: Nitric oxide (.NO), superoxide (O2.-) hydroxyl radical (.OH), lipid peroxy radical (LOO.). Although, molecular oxygen (O2) has two unpaired electrons in two different orbitals, it is not a free radical (23). After donating an electron, an antioxidant becomes a free radical by definition. In this state, antioxidants are not harmful because they have the ability to accommodate the change in electrons without becoming reactive

Peroxynitrite is a powerful oxidant, formed from the reaction of nitric oxide and superoxide. It is known to interact with different biological molecules like DNA, lipids and proteins leading to their structural and functional alterations. These events elicit various cellular responses including cell signaling causing oxidative damage, committing cells to apoptosis or necrosis. The present paper delineates single strand breakage in DNA mediated by the formation of 8-nitroguanine and 8-oxoguanine. Different approaches of cell death such as necrosis and apoptosis are modulated by cellular energetics (ATP and NAD+). High concentrations of peroxynitrite are known to cause necrosis whereas low concentration leads to apoptosis. Peroxynitrite mediated

Damage from free radicals can cause damage to the kidneys, which are susceptible to the oxidative damage that comes from having free radicals in the system. Damage to the kidneys can interrupt the blood supply to the kidneys. The amino acid also protects kidneys from the cellular stress caused by changes in the body’s cell levels.

Peroxynitrite can either oxidize or nitrate different biological molecules like thiols, tyrosine residues in proteins and phospholipids having unsaturated fatty acids. Radicals derived through peroxynitrite carries out one-electron reactions, form sulphilic and sulphonic acid derivatives (Quijano et al., 1997; Bonini and Augusto, 2001). Purine bases, present in DNA, are susceptible to oxidation and adduct formation

A free radical is a molecule, or group of molecules, that has one or more unpaired electrons. Most molecules have an even number of electrons and their chemical bond is mad of pairs of electrons that are shared. These free radicals however, are very unstable and can cause damage to cells in the body. Free radicals form when the weak , unstable bonds react with other compounds. They are trying to gain an electron so that it will become stable. Once this electron is grabbed, the stable molecule is left dangling as a free radical. Then, it is like dominoes, causing a chain reaction. They speed up diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and age-related diseases.

Antioxidants are agents which scavenge the free radicals and prevent the damage caused by them. They can greatly reduce the damage due to oxidants by neutralizing the free radicals before they can attack the cells and prevent damage to lipids, proteins, enzymes, carbohydrates and DNA (Fang et al., 2002).

In this paper, Bhattacharjee et al. focus on studying both the formation of free radicals and the repair of the resulting DNA damage through the development of methods for accurately creating and identifying DNA damage resulting from free radical reactions. Damage to DNA due to free radical reactions can lead to numerous biological issues both on the molecular level and at the level of the organism’s health, causing issues such as carcinogenesis and cell death. According to Bhattacharjee et al., previously existing methods of quantifying DNA damage were restricted to immunological assays. These assays, however, were limited in the ability to detect DNA damage due to a lack of specificity in antibodies used for the assays as well as an

Oxidative stress (OS) result in interference in the functioning of biological systems that maintain levels of environmentally produced reactive oxygen species (ROS), by readily detecting and detoxifying them (Lucana et al., 2012). Living organisms have adopted mechanisms to protect themselves against oxidative stress, by producing enzymes such as catalase and superoxide dismutase, small proteins like thioredoxin and glutaredoxin, and molecules such as glutathione ( Cabiscol et al.,1999).