Stereotypes: A Demographic Study

Keith Payne from University of North Carolina conducted a study of weapon bias, split-second decisions and unintended stereotyping. The basis of this study was that sometimes stereotypes aid people in seeing a weapon when there actually is not one. These situations come into play especially when individuals like law enforcement officials or military officials, are in situations of action and have to make a split second-decision. Payne wanted to find answers to his questions of weapon bias so in turn he conducted an experimental study.

Stereotypes are socially constructed, over-generalized views regarding a particular group of persons with certain characteristics that are widely accepted, and usually expected, in a society. The dominant group of a certain society, which in this case is probably Caucasians and men, usually creates these social constructions. Claude M. Steele, a researcher from Stanford University, performed multiple research studies on the idea and psychological effects of stereotypes on its victims. In his studies, he coins the term “stereotype threat” as the “social-psychological predicament that can arise from widely-known negative stereotypes about one's group,” which implies that “the existence of such a stereotype means that anything one does or any of one's features that conform to it make the stereotype more plausible as a self-characterization in the eyes of others, and perhaps even in one's own eyes” (Steele 797).

Over the years, there have been numerous cases of African-American men being shot and killed by white police officers. According to many of these police officers, it was just a rapid decision to pull the trigger. Correspondingly, implicit biases have resulted in these ideologies, making African-American men seem more violent than white men. In fact, there are many studies that demonstrate how police officers are affected by implicit biases. For example, a study had college students play a computer game where the objective was to shoot dangerous armed

The racial stereotyping of minority groups is a prevalent problem within the United State’s criminal justice system. It is a regrettable issue which permeates American society. The young Black male, in particular, is often portrayed as a criminal based on incorrect assumptions regarding who perpetrates crime. There are several components contributing to the criminal stigma of Blacks. The way crime is conveyed by American culture is possibly as important as how crime actually functions. The widespread belief that Black males commit the majority of crime skews the view society’s perception of Blacks. Typifications of Black males include a violent, threatening, thug-like character. The connection between race and crime is so deeply seeded in

For example, 76% of crime report in local news stations in Chicago depicted a black perpetrator for their leading stories (Entman, 1990). This coverage works to provide stereotypes on the assumption of black people as dangerous, sub-human, and inherently criminal. Moreover, in comparison to white criminals who were not shown in holding or mug shots, black criminals are frequently shown handcuffed in police holding (Entman, 1990) The association of black people with symbols of menace increases the apprehensive and negative beliefs required for systemic racism (Entman, 1990). As a result of extensive circulation of negative stereotypes, it becomes imbedded in the social psyche that violence and discrimination are reasonable merits to be employed against these people as they are seen as a threat to social stability. In effect, there is little accountability for violence against blacks by members of law enforcement and many officers are not indicted for the murder of blacks, or else face menial sentences (Chancey& Robertson, 2015). The underlying attitude of disregard towards black lives enables institutionalized racism, which is transferred to the general public, and is justified by the negative stereotypes fabricated by the ruling white class (Chancey& Robertson, 2015). For example, from “January 1

Racial Bias and Automatic Response in the Misidentification of WeaponsOn March 18th, 2018 Sacramento police officers shot and killed 22-year-old Stephon Clark in the backyard of his grandmother’s house after mistaking his cellphone for a gun. The fatal shooting of Stephon Clark is just one of many incidences where unarmed black men have fallen victim to implicit racial biases. When police officers are pressured to make split second decisions their unconscious biases toward black men becomes present and influences their judgement against black men whom they suspect to be armed with guns but are in fact unarmed. With today’s technological advancements and the media’s ability to reach a large population of people there is greater awareness of

For decades, Americans have been associating young black men with stereotypes that affiliate them with violence. These stereotypes, which are based purely off of appearances, have caused many young black males to face violent, unnecessary, as well as unjust encounters with white police officers. As the number of deaths among young black men increase because of police brutality, society should change how they perceive these men in order to prevent inflicting more harm to them. Specific cases, such as the cases of Freddie Gray, Oscar Grant, Trayvon Martin, and several others, will be presented in order to display how the distortion of the stereotypes can cause incredible harm to young black men due to police violence in addition to how stereotypes affect society’s perception of all young black men.

The researcher began by asking the question what factors contribute to the stereotyping of black men as “dangerous and criminal”. And the researcher found out that although media influence stereotyping of this sort, it's only smaller part of the larger problem. There is a general tendency in the media to over-represent African-American as criminal; portray black men as particularly dangerous, and present information about black suspect that assume their guilt. However, even when crime featuring black and white criminal suspects is presented in equitable ways in the media, viewers’ existing stereotypes can result in biased interpretations that may serve to maintain racial stereotypes nevertheless. The researcher conclude that, viewers’ selective perception and interpretation of media content suggest that equitable media portrayals of race in crime-related programming may not be sufficient to address the concerns presented here.

Dovidio, Gaertner & Kawakami (2002) found that a shorter timed response of implicit prejudice predicted spontaneous nonverbal behaviors, such that there was a negative bias from Whites towards Blacks, despite explicit self-report measures by Whites indicating a more positive bias. However, studies have shown that individuals can employ implicit motivational tactics to control these implicit attitudes to such an extent that these associations and negative biases are non-existent. Glaser & Knowles (2008) found that those who had an implicit motivation to control prejudice did not show an association between weapons with Blacks (as opposed to Whites) and the Shooter Bias—being more likely to “shoot” the Black individual quicker than the White individual. That is, participants were equally likely to “shoot” both White and Black individuals. It might be noteworthy then, to investigate the effect priming has on more specific stimuli such as names. Namely, this study aims to investigate how likely White individuals are to match stereotypically Black or White names to a description of an individual after having been primed with hostile versus non-hostile behavior, and whether differences in frequency of matching are seen in individuals showing high versus low implicit prejudice. Thus, it is proposed that priming individuals with images of stereotypes characteristic of Black individuals (such as hostility) will facilitate the activation of implicit prejudices—high or

6 Law Enforcement Contact with African Americans). For instance, one phenomenon of stereotyping is to the extent that function as it is “when citizens see all police officers as repressive and capable of brutality” (Ch. 6 Law Enforcement Contact with African Americans). However, they know that they will all get hammered across the nation when there is an exposure about an occasion of police ruthlessness “against blacks or reports or racial profiling” (Ch. 6 Law Enforcement Contact with African Americans,

Blacks are considered as an stereotype threat ( a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group). Therefore , blacks are concerned they will be judged and treated unfairly by police , in line with those stereotypes.Police officers shows their cognitive dissonance (state of tension that occurs whenever an individual simultaneously holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent) against blacks or african americans. Due to the past stereotype, blacks are considered to be dangerous and monstrous individuals to police officers. Police officers link with themselves with interpersonal sensitivity for black individuals.

Racial Bias are a direct correlation to police violence against African Americans, stereotypes perpetuated by social constructions and media representation along with individual prejudice help by police officers view African Americans as a threat especially African American men. Police trust this ideology of “threat” to assist in their use of excessive force against African Americans to comply. (Tyler, 2011; Tyler et al., 2015, Skinner, Haas,2016).

The first experiment conducted by Devine and colleagues conducted a well thought out experiment in terms of their technique. In all three studies the authors’ randomly assigned the participants to the experiments increasing the ability to generalize this sample to a larger population. In addition, the participants were asked to freely respond to the question, providing a more accurate knowledge of stereotypes because no cues were provided to influence the subjects’ knowledge. The anonymity of the participants also allows subjects to freely provide information without being judged resulting in an easier access to their private thoughts. Alternatively, in all three studies the authors recruited a number of white participants. This may produce bias in their results as stereotypes and prejudice towards blacks have historical roots in their culture. In the first study, the list of traits do not completely capture

However, these cognitive short cuts sometimes have negative effects. Within United States culture, because people tend to associate African Americans with violence and crime, White participants identify guns faster under black face priming than white face priming (Payne, 2001). White participants also tend to respond faster to White faces paired with positive words (e.g., playful, humorous, charming) than Black faces paired with positive words, and Black faces paired with negative words (e.g., poor, violent, lazy) than White faces paired with negative words. These findings suggest that negative stereotypes of African Americans may implicitly influence White participants’ social judgments of African Americans (Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997).

Race is a social construct used to categorize people who share biological traits that a society thinks are important. It is commonly used to organize people and distribute power within society. As Cornel West implies, “it is an important factor in determining the life chances of certain groups of people in the United States” (West, 358). Race plays a huge role in how people are perceived, and therefore the opportunities that are available to them. A person’s race influences a whole host of social outcomes, from their education, to their income and their experiences with the criminal justice system. Just like race, minorities are categorized and distinguished by physical or cultural difference, that a society sets apart and subordinates. Typically, minorities occupy a lower status in society and have less access to the levels of societal power. Non-Hispanic white Americans, which is the majority group in United States society, have higher incomes, live in better neighborhoods, and are more likely to have more prestigious jobs and better educations than racial and ethnic minorities. Because of these disparities, minorities often face prejudice, a rigid and unfair generalization about an entire category of people. Prejudice often takes the form of stereotypes, which are exaggerated and simplified descriptions that are applied to every person in a category. Negative stereotypes enforce racism, or beliefs, thoughts, and actions based on the idea that one race is innately superior to another race. These thoughts can lead to harmful actions, or discrimination, towards different groups of people. Some people believe that race is tied up in structures of power and that races with less societal power are inferior. For example, it’s not unknown that black men are seen as violent in today’s society. Because of this stereotype, African-American people are more likely to fall victim to police brutality. An analysis of the available FBI data by Vox's Dara Lind found that US police kill black people at disproportionate rates: “Black people accounted for 31 percent of police killing victims in 2012, even though they made up just 13 percent of the US population”. In an effort to end this injustice, people of all races